Green Car Congress

Roskill forecasts increasing dependence of Li market on batteries; switch from portable electronics to hybrids

2013-05-20T02:01:00-07:00

Consumption of lithium in rechargeable batteries by end use, 2012-2017, kt LCE. Source: Roskill. Click to enlarge.

In a forecast of the Lithium market through 2017, Roskill Information Services estimates that rechargeable batteries will, in the base-case growth scenario, contribute 75% of the growth in forecast lithium demand to 2017, when total demand for lithium is expected to reach slightly more than 238,000t lithium carbonate equivalent (LCE). Roskill is an international metals and minerals market research firm.

Batteries accounted for 27% of global lithium consumption in 2012, up from 15% in 2007 and 8% in 2002. This end-use was responsible for 44% of the net increase in lithium consumption over the last ten years, and 70% over the last five years.

Other end-uses, including glass-ceramics, greases and polymers, have also shown high rates of growth, but are predicted to moderate over the next five years as emerging economy growth slows. The lithium industry is therefore becoming more reliant on rechargeable batteries to sustain high rates of future demand growth, Roskill concludes.

In addition, in the period to 2017 Roskill forecasts that the main market driver for lithium-ion batteries will gradually switch from portable consumer electronics to electric vehicles, especially hybrid variants.

Reflecting the concentration of lithium-ion battery manufacturers and associated cathode material producers in China, Japan and South Korea, the East Asia region has become an increasingly important consumer of lithium products over the last decade. In 2012, East Asia accounted for 60% of total global consumption with Europe accounting for a further 24% and North America 9%.

Roskill’s analysis suggests that the price of technical-grade lithium carbonate, the main product produced and consumed in the lithium market, recovered some of its global economic downturn losses as the market tightened in 2012, averaging US$5,300/t, up 15% from 2010. This is below the 2007 peak of US$6,500/t, but well above the US$2,000-3,000/t levels seen in the early 2000s.

Lithium extraction, which totalled more than 168,000t LCE in 2012, is undertaken predominately in Australia, Chile, Argentina and China, with roughly half of lithium output from hard rock sources and half from brine. Production is dominated by Talison Lithium in Australia, SQM and Rockwood Lithium in Chile, and FMC in Argentina.

Just more than two-thirds of lithium minerals extracted in Australia are processed into downstream chemical products in China, where producers such as Tianqi Lithium (who recently acquired Talison to secure a captive supply of mineral feedstock) operate mineral conversion plants.

Galaxy Resources commissioned a new 17,000 tpy LCE mineral conversion plant in China in 2012. Canada Lithium is in the process of commissioning a 20,000 tpy LCE plant in Quebec and several existing Chinese mineral conversion plants are also expanding capacity. FMC has increased brine-based processing capacity by a third in Argentina, while nearby Orocobre is also constructing a new brine-based operation due to be completed in 2014.

In addition, Rockwood Lithium plans to complete a 20,000 tpy LCE expansion in Chile in 2014. Combined, this additional capacity totals just under 100,000 tpy LCE, enough to meet forecast demand to 2017.

As the opening of new and expanded capacity is concentrated over the next two years, Roskill forecasts that the lithium market could witness increased competition and supply-side pressure on pricing, with prices for technical-grade lithium carbonate potentially falling back to around US$5,000/t CIF in 2014.

Report: Toyota to boost Li-ion production for hybrids to more than 200K packs per year

2013-05-20T02:00:00-07:00

The Nikkei reported that Toyota Motor Corp. plans to increase its output of lithium-ion batteries for the Prius and other models to more than 200,000 units a year.

Most of Toyota’s hybrids still rely on NiMH batteries. The Nikkei report said that Toyota hopes to extend the range of its hybrid cars by reducing their weight with smaller lithium-ion batteries.

PEVE, in which the carmaker holds an 80% stake and Panasonic Corp. the remainder, has a production line at its Teiho factory in Toyota, Aichi Prefecture that can turn out 36,000 lithium-ion batteries per year, but the line does not have the capacity to meet Toyota’s production target.

German Government hosting international e-mobility conference; Merkel speaking

2013-05-19T09:56:57-07:00

The German Federal Government is hosting an international conference on e-mobility, “Electric Mobility Going Global” later this month (27-28 May) in Berlin; Germany’s chancellor Dr. Angela Merkel is scheduled to give a speech on the first conference day.

The conference is conducted in cooperation with the National Electric Mobility Platform (NPE). The German Federal Government is inviting speakers and participants to discuss the potential and challenges of electric mobility.

Among those slated to speak is the new US Secretary of Energy, Dr. Ernest Moniz, as well as Dr. Wan Gang, Minister of Science and Technology, China.

The conference language is German, with simultaneous translation to English. Video streaming will be offered through the website of the conference.

Canada backs demonstration-scale algal biorefinery project in the oil sands; Algal Carbon Conversion

2013-05-19T07:12:13-07:00

The Government of Canada is supporting a three-year project that will result in the construction of a $19-million, demonstration-scale facility in Alberta that will use algae to recycle industrial carbon dioxide emissions from an oil sands facility into commercial products such as biofuels. The Algal Carbon Conversion (ACC) Pilot Project is a partnership among the National Research Council of Canada (NRC); Canadian Natural Resources Limited, one of the largest independent crude oil and natural gas producers in Canada; and Pond Biofuels.

The demonstration-scale algal biorefinery will be established at Canadian Natural’s Primrose South oil sands site, near Bonnyville, Alberta. The demonstration facility will be integrated into the Canadian Natural’s operations with direct access to industrial flue gas emissions, wastewater and waste heat.

The biorefinery will test and evaluate the scalability and cost effectiveness of current algal cultivation technologies for potential commercial deployment. The algal biomass will then undergo further processing into products, such as biofuels, livestock feed and fertilizer.

Four additional R&D streams have been designed to support the pilot project and future commercial deployment of the technology. Each stream is designed to address an economic or a technical challenge related to commercial deployment of the technology.

Algae: Identification of most appropriate algae strains for industrial deployment
Photobioreactors & Light: Greater productivity and reduced costs for photobioreactors
Harvesting and Dewatering: Reduced energy costs for processing algal biomass
Additional Value Streams: High-value, sustainable products from algal biomass

The ultimate goal of the project is to test the viability and feasibility of this technology on a large scale. If proven successful, it can then be used as a model for recycling industrial emissions in the oil sands as well as in other industries across Canada and globally.

Pond Biofuels’ validation facility at St Marys Cement kiln in Ontario. Click to enlarge.

Pond Biofuels, founded in 2007, has designed, constructed, and is operating a large scale process validation facility, using CO₂ from the raw flue gas from Votorantim St. Marys Cement’s kiln in Ontario to grow algae.

The company selected its initial algae strains based on a combination of robust growth rates and reliability for use in southern Ontario environmental conditions. It says that its system can accommodate any advances in algae technology, new strains, genetically modified organisms, changes to salt-water media, or any other improvements.

As a rapidly growing Canadian company, Pond Biofuels is very excited to partner with the National Research Council of Canada and Canadian Natural on this project in the Canadian Oil Sands. This partnership, along with our current work with the cement and steel industrial sectors to implement algae technology is an enormous step forward and establishes Canada as the world leader in the field of carbon capture and recycling.
—Steven Martin, CEO of Pond Biofuels

On 7 May, the Government of Canada announced a refocused NRC and outlined how its new structure will be more beneficial to business. The National Research Council will work with industry to bridge technology gaps, helping build a more innovative Canadian economy. The Algal Carbon Conversion project is an example of the kind of research and technology development that NRC will pursue.

New diesel for MY2014 BMW 5 Series in US; priced below hybrid model

2013-05-19T04:49:00-07:00

For the 2014 model year, BMW is adding a new inline-6 Advanced Diesel engine for the 5 Series sedan. The enhanced, 2014 BMW 5 Series Sedan and 5 Series Gran Turismo go on sale at Authorized BMW Centers in the US in August, 2013, including the ActiveHybrid 5 model as well as gasoline-engined variants.

The 2014 BMW 535d is BMW’s latest diesel variant in North America. Its inline-6 BMW Advanced Diesel engine with BMW TwinPower Turbo technology makes 255 horsepower (190 kW) at 4,000 rpm and 413 lb-ft (560 N·m) of torque from 1,500 – 3,000 rpm (preliminary figures). Simultaneously, the new BMW 535d Sedan is expected to show substantial fuel efficiency gains over its gasoline-fueled counterpart. US EPA figures will be available closer to the on-sale date.

BMW’s xDrive intelligent all-wheel drive system is also available on the new 535d Sedan.

In the new diesel for the BMW 535d Sedan, the TwinPower Turbo technology consists of a variable-geometry turbocharger and high precision direct fuel injection with solenoid valve injectors.

Brake Energy Regeneration, the Auto Start-Stop functionality, and ECO PRO mode, the suite of standard-fitted BMW EfficientDynamics technologies now also includes a coasting mode (which disengages the powertrain while coasting), and the ECO PRO Route function, which can be selected via the Navigation system. Additionally, updated aerodynamics is a key factor in the latest advances made by the engineers in the area of fuel efficiency.

The entry-level 528i sedan starts at $50,425, including destination and handling. The 535i gasoline-engined sedan starts at $56,025. The 535d diesel sedan has an MSRP of $57,525; the ActiveHybrid 5 model has an MSRP of $62,325.

California ARB 2013 research project to characterize ZEV market; assessing future market potential

2013-05-18T08:53:00-07:00

The California Air Resources Board (ARB) 2013 research plan includes a project that will comprehensively characterize the Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) market, with the ultimate goal of increasing consumer purchases of ZEVs.

The proposed project will investigate the factors that influence sales of ZEVs in California (e.g., price, vehicle range, infrastructure). The project is intended to support the planned upcoming mid-term review of California’s Advanced Clean Cars program (earlier post), coordinated with the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA).

To support that mid-term review and Executive Order B-16-2012, which establishes goals to reduce transportation-related greenhouse gas emissions by improving Californians’ access to electric vehicles and charging infrastructure, ARB has already initiated research that will quantify the electricity-powered miles driven by advanced technology vehicles; analyze the charging behavior of electric vehicle drivers; explore how new car buyers’ perceptions of zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) influence their vehicle purchase decisions; develop methods for measurement of low levels of particulate matter emissions so that compliance can be reliably determined; and quantify the potential emission benefits of vehicle load reduction. Research in these areas will also be coordinated with US EPA and NHTSA.

“Although the ZEV-owning population is currently relatively small, evaluating recent ZEV purchases will help us understand the future market.”

—ARB FY2013-2014 Research Plan

ARB notes that while the California Energy Commission has conducted several studies in the past on consumer response to alternatively fueled vehicles and incentives, these have relied on stated preference responses to hypothetical future vehicles.

Additionally, research from the EV Project and the California Center for Sustainable Energy (administrator of the State’s Clean Vehicle Rebate Program) has been able to evaluate real-world consumer response.

However, these studies have been limited in geographic scope, vehicle types, and/or sample size. ARB’s existing research project on consumer valuation of ZEVs focuses on the general new car buyer’s perception, not only owners of ZEVs. This project would complement these existing efforts by evaluating the ZEV market in detail from a more holistic perspective and provide a measure of the representativeness of survey and interview respondents to the overall ZEV buying population.
—ARB FY 2013-2014 Research Plan

In the proposed project, researchers will merge monthly ZEV registration data with census tract data in order to correlate the factors that influence ZEV sales across California using econometric methods. The study will consider:

Policy-driven factors such as purchase rebate levels and access to high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes;
Market conditions, such as gasoline and electricity prices and the attributes and diversity of vehicle offerings;
Geographic factors, such as proximity and availability of electric chargers, local built environments, and neighbors purchasing similar vehicles, and demographic characteristics; and
The attributes and diversity of vehicle offerings.

ARB will use the results to describe the current ZEV market and to refine future estimates of ZEV market potential in California.Proposed funding for the project is $265,000.

Low Carbon Fuel Standard. The research plan also proposes two projects to address several key research issues related to low carbon fuels:

The future of drop-in fuels: life cycle, costs and environmental impacts of bio-based hydrocarbon fuel pathways.
Feasibility of renewable natural gas as a large scale, low-carbon substitute.

Victorian Government seeking more fleets for EV Trial; looking for new mobility models

2013-05-18T07:40:23-07:00

The Government of Victoria (Australia) is inviting more Victorian car fleets to participate in the Victorian Government’s Electric Vehicle Trial. (Earlier post.)This is the final expression of interest for fleets to take part.

The Government is seeking expressions of interest from companies, not-for-profit organisations and government bodies. Applications are accepted until 31 May.

A key component of the Electric Vehicle Trial is providing Victorian organizations with the opportunity to trial an electric vehicle within their car fleets, including as part of car-sharing schemes.

The Government said that in this round, it is particularly interested in seeing proposals that offer something different from the 35 fleets already in the trial. In particular, it seeks ideas that could see electric vehicles help deliver ‘mobility solutions’ as alternatives to traditional models of car ownership.

Infineon introduces EconoDUAL 3 IGBT power modules with automotive qualification

2013-05-18T05:38:00-07:00

At PCIM Europe 2013 in Nuremberg, Infineon Technologies AG launched its new EconoDUAL 3 IGBT modules, which are fully qualified according to automotive standards. The new offering addresses demanding applications in commercial, construction or agricultural vehicles where extended reliability is a key. Automotive qualification means that the modules provide significantly increased thermal cycling and thermal shock capability, while a new soft diode improves the EMI behavior.

Infineon’s new EconoDUAL 3 Power Module. Click to enlarge.

The optimized design and assembly technology of the new automotive-qualified EconoDUAL 3 modules enables a more than three times higher thermal cycling capability, while the thermal shock capability is increased by a factor of ten compared to the industry standard.

The modules of the EconoDUAL 3 series offer the highest power density (up to 600A/1200V) available within this module footprint. The modules provide superior switching performance while copper wire bonding leads to a reduced internal lead resistance, the company says. With the use of copper bonding technology as well as an improved DCB the output power can be increased by up to 30% when compared to the related 450A version.

April new car sales in Europe post gain for first time since Sep 2011 due to two more working days

2013-05-18T05:00:00-07:00

In April, sales of new passenger cars in Europe grew for the first time (+1.7%) since September 2011, according to figures from the European Association of Automobile Manufacturers (ACEA). The region counted on average two more working days compared to the same month last year, which would account for the increase, ACEA said.

In absolute figures, April 2013 was the third lowest level of new registrations for a month of April, with the historic low for April reached in 2012 (1,021,358 units). A total of 1,038,343 units was recorded in the EU in April this year, or 1.7% more compared to the low level of April last year.

Four months into the year, new car registrations amounted to 4,026,946 units, or 7.1% less than in the same period a year ago.

In April, results were varied across markets. Germany (+3.8%), Spain (+10.8%) and the UK (+14.8%) expanded, while France (-5.3%) and Italy (-10.8%) faced a downturn.

From January to April, the UK remained the only major market to post growth (+8.9%). Spain (-6.7%), Germany (-8.5%), France (-12.3%) and Italy (-12.3%) all saw their demand decline, leading to an overall 7.1% decrease in the EU.

GM Joins Center for Automotive Research at Stanford

2013-05-17T15:55:55-07:00

General Motors is joining the Center for Automotive Research at Stanford University (CARS). The Center for Automotive Research at Stanford is a community of faculty and students from a range of disciplines aimed at discovering, building, and deploying critical ideas and innovations for the next generation of cars and drivers.

CARS provides shared resources for research, teaching, student project teams and new educational initiatives across many research centers, including the law and business schools.

This membership fortifies GM’s long-standing relationship with Stanford; Mary Barra, GM senior vice president of Global Product Development, is one of many GM leaders to have earned a degree from Stanford, which is one of GM’s key engineering and business recruitment institutions.

GM is dedicated to helping develop the next generation of science, technology, engineering and mathematics professionals and advancing the industry. The Center for Automotive Research at Stanford offers us not only the chance to contribute to the education of future leaders, but also cultivate new and creative vehicle technology solutions.
—Mary Barra

Researchers propose evaluating alt fuel efficiency based on energy rather than volume; impact of ethanol on vehicle efficiency and GHGs

2013-05-17T12:30:11-07:00

Relative changes in vehicle energy efficiency (VEE) (km/MJ) on ethanol/gasoline blends over those on gasoline for different blending levels. Credit: ACS, Yan et al. Click to enlarge.

In a policy analysis in the ACS journal Environmental Science & Technology, researchers from the Universities of Cambridge, Exeter and Oxford argue that, due to the increased emphasis on alternative fuels with drastically differing energy densities, vehicle efficiency should be evaluated based on energy rather than volume.

With that as a premise, they go on to show that the efficiency of existing vehicles can be both positively and negatively affected by ethanol content, ranging from −15% to +24%. As a result, they conclude, uncertainties in the net greenhouse gas (GHG) effect of ethanol, particularly when used in a low-level blend with gasoline, are considerably larger than previously estimated. Standard deviations increase by >10% and >200% when used in high and low blends, respectively.

Bioethanol is increasingly promoted as an alternative transport fuel worldwide and global production rapidly increased from 17 to 86 billion liters between 2000 and 2011 with government support such as mandates, subsidies and tax benefits...The rapid growth of ethanol use has sparked extensive research activities exploring the environmental impact of ethanol, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in particular, over the entire fuel life cycle, covering biomass feedstock production, ethanol conversion and the combustion of ethanol in vehicle engines.

However, most life cycle analyses (LCAs) to date have mainly focused on the production stage while assuming end-use efficiencies are the same for ethanol and gasoline despite the fact that ethanol can, in theory, affect engine efficiency and performance due to different thermo-chemical properties compared to gasoline. The resulting estimates of the net GHG impacts of ethanol could therefore be incomplete.

Several recent highly cited LCAs that have incorporated vehicle efficiency differences between gasoline and ethanol/gasoline blends could potentially be misleading. This is because they have relied on rather differing results from a limited number of sources while ignoring the vehicle-to-vehicle variations and the inherent uncertainties in vehicle efficiency measurements.
—Yan et al.

In the ES&T paper, Yan et al. set out to:

to examine the effect of ethanol blending on the energy efficiency of in-use vehicle models using a common metric and available empirical evidence;
to explore the impact of incorporating ethanol’s effect on vehicle efficiency into its LCA;
to determine whether potential exists for increased vehicle efficiency through ethanol use; and
to explore whether there is an optimal blending level for a given quantity of ethanol, for example, large quantities of low blends versus small quantities of high blends.

Effective substitution ratios for different blending levels. Credit: ACS, Yan et al. Click to enlarge.

Efficiency. To determine the vehicle efficiency effect of ethanol, they compiled paired energy efficiency data from all known studies of existing spark injection (SI)-engine vehicles operating on ethanol/gasoline blends and pure gasoline.

Most of the studies expressed vehicle efficiency in various volume-based units. Yan et al. converted all vehicle efficiency measurements into vehicle energy efficiency (VEE, km/MJ) based on fuel energy densities reported in each study.

While VEE is important, it does not directly reveal the amount of gasoline displaced by a given amount of ethanol. This is because the ethanol component may affect the conversion efficiency of the gasoline component in a blend, that is, make an engine more or less efficient in its use of the gasoline component. We therefore employ a factor called Effective Substitution Ratio (ESR) to represent the underlying substitution effects between ethanol and gasoline. For instance, the ESR is 1.5 if the use of 1 MJ ethanol leads to a savings of 1.5 MJ gasoline. The ESR is therefore a crucial scaling factor when evaluating the net effects of substituting gasoline with ethanol in terms of energy, GHG emissions and costs.
—Yan et al.

Among their general findings from the efficiency analysis were:

VEE is on average 2.7% higher for ethanol/gasoline blends than for gasoline but varies within a wide range from 14.9% lower to 23.6% higher. While the mean VEE increases with increasing ethanol content—from 0.3% higher for E5 (5% ethanol) to 3.3% higher for E85 (85% ethanol), the ranges of VEE changes are quite large for all blends including both positive and negative changes.
ESR can range from −1.42 to 4.36 and the overall average for all blends is 1.08. Vehicle-to-vehicle variations, differences in test conditions and the uncertainties in ESR calculations all could have contributed to this large range, the authors suggested.

A negative ESR implies that the use of ethanol/gasoline blends considerably reduces VEE. This can be caused by poor engine tolerance of ethanol. There is a generally decreasing trend for the mean ESR with increasing ethanol content.
Carburetor- and FI-engine vehicles on E5-E20 achieve mean ESR of 1.25 and 1.17 respectively, both with median slightly lower than the mean. The ESR spans over wide ranges for both combinations, with a 95% confidence interval (95%- CI) of 0.57:2.36 and 0.50:2.15 for carburetor- and FI-engine vehicles. respectively.
The mean and median ESR for DI-engine vehicles on E5-E20 are 0.85 and 0.98 respectively. The mean and median ESR for DI-engine vehicles on E5-E20 would be 1.03 and 1.04 respectively if less-reliable values were excluded.
Flex-fuel vehicles (FFVs) (including both FI and DI engines as the difference between the two was negligible) are most likely to achieve a mean ESR slightly higher than unity with a much tighter probability distribution (a 95%-CI of 0.92:1.16).

In general, carburetor-engine vehicles appear to be able to better take advantage of low blends than FI-engine vehicles while DI- engine vehicles do not seem to benefit. Nevertheless, with many fewer observations and the fact that DI engines are just beginning to enter the market, more tests are needed for DI-engine vehicles on low blends.
—Yan et al.

Lifecycle impact. The authors used Argonne’s GREET model to assess the effect of ESR on the net GHG impact of substituting conventional gasoline with corn or switchgrass ethanol, represented by the life-cycle GHG emission changes resulted from the use of 1 MJ ethanol.

They modified the model to allow incorporation of the uncertainties in ESR for low blends in regular vehicles and high blends in FFVs.

Their results indicated that the inclusion of ESR can greatly affect the net GHG impact of both corn and switchgrass ethanol, especially when ethanol is used in low blends.

The results highlighted that even though the net GHG impacts of ethanol used in low blends are likely to be modestly better than the previously estimated, they are also much more uncertain with a finite probability of being worse than previous estimates.

Given these substantial effects of ESR on the net GHG impact of ethanol observed herein, we assert that it is important and feasible to reduce the uncertainties in ESR and to take ESR into account in future stochastic LCAs to capture these potential risks that have been largely overlooked.
—Yan et al.

Probability density functions of Life-cycle GHG emission changes relative to gasoline resulted from the use of 1 MJ corn and switchgrass ethanol with parameters included for uncertainty analysis shown in brackets (default value for corn ethanol does not include LUC emissions). Credit: ACS, Yan et al. Click to enlarge.

Future potential for ethanol optimization. As part of their study, the authors touched on several promising technology pathways that might better utilize the favorable properties of ethanol. These included:

For flex-fuel vehicles: better control of various operating parameters such as ignition and valve timing and through increased geometric CR with variable valve timing to reduce effective CR for gasoline or low blends.
Variable geometric CR engines also have great potential for realizing the antiknock benefits of different ethanol/gasoline blends, especially for FFV.
Dedicated ethanol (or E85) engines have the promise to improve efficiency substantially over comparable regular gasoline engines through direct-injection, increased geometric CR, variable valve timing, exhaust gas recirculation, aggressive turbocharging, and downsizing and/or downspeeding.
Lean boosted engines with ethanol can produce efficiency higher than that offered by diesel engines.
Increased engine efficiency at high load for ethanol/ gasoline blends (as a result of their antiknock properties) could also be explored in hybrid-electric powertrains.
Innovative engine concepts and designs such as the Direct Injection Ethanol Boosted Gasoline Engine (DIEBGE) that improve the efficiency of gasoline use through the leverage effect of ethanol. The DIEBGE concept is to use a downsized port-injection gasoline engine with aggressive turbocharging, increased CR and ethanol as a knock suppressant to match the performance of a much larger engine, resulting in an increase in engine efficiency of 30% or more.

Policy implications. The authors noted that current biofuel policies have focused on maximizing ethanol production and consumption and reducing GHG intensity while ignoring the potential to improve vehicle efficiency through ethanol use.

In contrast, they suggested that future policies should be designed to promote appropriate engine technologies that correspond to the quantity of ethanol available in order to improve vehicle efficiency and maximize the ESR.

In general, the potential to increase ESR is much more limited for high blends than that for low blends mainly due to the diminishing leveraging effect of the ethanol component on the gasoline component. However, tailored strategies are needed for different regions depending on the current and future level of their ethanol use and changes to the vehicle fleets and fuel infrastructure may be necessary.

...Our analysis also highlights that comparing vehicle efficiency for different fuels is far from straightforward as fuel efficiency is usually reported in volumetric units such as MPG and km/l and volumetric energy content of fuels can vary considerably (and usually not measured). Recent studies have shown that even different volumetric units of fuel economy can be quite misleading and better public understanding in energy use and savings is required to realize the benefits of energy strategies. A common metric for vehicle efficiency expressed in energy and distance such as km/MJ or MJ/km could therefore be highly beneficial for both policy makers and consumers, especially with the increasingly diversifying types of fuels and vehicles.

Vehicle energy efficiency on all commercially available fuels (particularly for FFVs), when made available, could help policy makers to develop appropriate policies that optimize the fuel-energy nexus and consumers to make informed decisions. Furthermore, the actual substitution effects between different fuels and energy carriers, which have been broadly neglected, should be clearly communicated based on available evidence.
—Yan et al.

In the future, the authors noted, other alternative fuels that have different thermo-chemical properties compared with their conventional counterparts (e.g., biodiesel, methanol, FT liquids), will also need to be assessed with respect to their effects on engine efficiency and GHG impacts.

Resources

Xiaoyu Yan, Oliver R. Inderwildi, David A. King, and Adam M. Boies (2013) Effects of Ethanol on Vehicle Energy Efficiency and Implications on Ethanol Life-Cycle Greenhouse Gas Analysis. Environmental Science & Technology doi: 10.1021/es305209a

NIST team boosts performance of solar-powered hydrogen generation in stable, lower-cost device

2013-05-17T10:05:01-07:00

Researchers at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) have demonstrated a significant improvement in the performance of solar-powered hydrogen generation by employing a metal–insulator–semiconductor (MIS) photoelectrode architecture that allows for stable and efficient water splitting using narrow bandgap semiconductors. A paper on their work is published in the journal Nature Materials.

Substantial improvement in the performance of Si-based MIS photocathodes is demonstrated through a combination of a high-quality thermal SiO₂ layer and the use of bilayer metal catalysts. Scanning probe techniques were used to simultaneously map the photovoltaic and catalytic properties of the MIS surface and reveal the spillover-assisted evolution of hydrogen off the SiO₂ surface and lateral photovoltage driven minority carrier transport over distances that can exceed 2 cm. The latter finding is explained by the photo- and electrolyte-induced formation of an inversion channel immediately beneath the SiO₂/Si interface. These findings have important implications for further development of MIS photoelectrodes and offer the possibility of highly efficient PEC water splitting.
—Esposito et al.

Multiple views of NIST’s photoelectrochemical hydrogen cell.

Side schematic [A] shows principal components of the cell. Electrodes on the top are titanium toped with platinum. An incoming photon generates a electron (e) and hole (h).

Microscope image [B] shows top of the cell surface with cylindrical electrodes and scanning laser beam.

Photo-current scan [C] shows relatively high current around the base of the electrodes, while the electrochemical scan [D] shows a complex pattern of hydrogen generation on and around the electrode.

Source: NIST. Click to enlarge.

A photoelectrochemical (PEC) cell is essentially a solar cell that produces hydrogen gas instead of electric current. At its simplest, a PEC cell contains a semiconducting photoelectrode that absorbs photons and converts them into energetic electrons, which are used to facilitate chemical reactions that split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen gases.

The best PEC cell has been demonstrated with an efficiency around 12.5%, notes NIST chemical engineer Daniel Esposito. “It’s been estimated that such a cell would be extremely expensive—thousands of dollars per square meter—and they also had issues with stability,” he says. One problem is that the semiconductors used to achieve the best conversion efficiency also tend to be highly susceptible to corrosion by the cell’s water-based electrolyte. A PEC electrode that is efficient, stable and economical to produce has been elusive.

The NIST team’s proposed solution is a silicon-based device using a metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) design that can overcome the efficiency/stability trade-off. The key is to deposit a very thin, but very uniform, layer of silicon dioxide (an insulator) on top of the semiconductor (silicon) that is well-suited for doing the photon-gathering work. On top of that is an array of tiny electrodes consisting of platinum-covered titanium.

The stable oxide layer protects the semiconductor from the electrolyte, but it’s thin enough and transparent enough that the photons will travel through it to the semiconductor, and the photo-generated electrons will “tunnel” in the opposite direction to reach the electrodes, where the platinum catalyzes the reaction that produces hydrogen.

The MIS device requires good production controls—the oxide layer in particular has to be deposited precisely—but Esposito notes that they used fabrication techniques that are standard in the electronics industry, which has decades of experience in building low-cost, silicon-based devices.

To study the system in detail, the NIST team scanned the surface of the device with a laser beam, illuminating only a small portion at a time to record photocurrent with micrometer resolution. In tandem with the beam, they also tracked an ultramicroelectrode across the surface to measure the rate of molecular hydrogen generation, the chemical half of the reaction.

The combination allowed them to observe two bonus effects of the MIS photoelectrode design: a secondary mechanism for hydrogen generation caused by the channeling of electrons through the oxide layer, and a more efficient transport of electrons to the reaction site than predicted.

The NIST team calculates an efficiency of 2.9% for their device, which also exhibits excellent stability during operation. While this efficiency is far lower than more costly designs, they note that it is 15 times better than previously reported results for similar silicon-based MIS devices, and the new data from their microanalysis of the system points towards several potential routes to improving performance.

The detailed results are found in Nature Materials.

Resources

D.V. Esposito, I. Levin, T.P. Moffat and A.A. Talin. (2013) H₂ evolution at Si-based metal–insulator–semiconductor photoelectrodes enhanced by inversion channel charge collection and H spillover. Nature Materials. doi: 10.1038/nmat3626

DOE authorizes 2nd proposed facility to export LNG; 1.4 Bcf/d for 20 years

2013-05-17T09:23:49-07:00

The US Department of Energy (DOE) has conditionally authorized Freeport LNG Expansion, L.P. and FLNG Liquefaction, LLC (Freeport) to export domestically produced liquefied natural gas (LNG) to countries that do not have a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States from the Freeport LNG Terminal on Quintana Island, Texas.

Freeport previously received approval to export LNG from this facility to FTA countries on February 10, 2011. Subject to environmental review and final regulatory approval, the facility is conditionally authorized to export at a rate of up to 1.4 billion cubic feet of natural gas a day (Bcf/d) for a period of 20 years. The Department granted the first authorization to export LNG to non-FTA countries in May 2011 for the Sabine Pass LNG Terminal in Cameron Parish, Louisiana at a rate of up to 2.2 Bcf/d.

The Energy Information Administration forecasts a record natural gas production rate in the US of 69.3 Bcf/d in 2013.

Federal law generally requires approval of natural gas exports to countries that have an FTA with the United States. For countries that do not have an FTA with the United States, the Natural Gas Act directs the Department of Energy to grant export authorizations unless the Department finds that the proposed exports “will not be consistent with the public interest.”

The Energy Department reviewed the application to export LNG from the Freeport LNG Terminal. Among other factors, the Department considered the economic, energy security, and environmental impacts—as well as public comments for and against the application and nearly 200,000 public comments related to the associated analysis of the cumulative impacts of increased LNG exports—and determined that exports from the terminal at a rate of up to 1.4 Bcf/d for a period of 20 years was not inconsistent with the public interest.

The Energy Department will continue to process the applications currently pending on a case-by-case basis, in the order of precedence previously detailed. As further information becomes available at the end of 2013, including the EIA’s Annual Energy Outlook Report, the Department will assess the impact of any market developments on subsequent public interest determinations.

NEI new solid state sulfide electrolyte powder for Lithium-ion batteries

2013-05-17T07:48:26-07:00

NEI Corporation is making Li₁₀SnP₂S₁₂ (Lithium-Tin-Phosphorous-Sulfide, LSPS) available for sale in powder form. LSPS belongs to a family of superionic solids which conduct lithium-ions at room temperature.

Commercial Lithium-ion batteries usually contain an electrolyte that is dissolved in flammable solvents. The use of a solid state electrolyte, such as LSPS, will eliminate the flammability issue associated with currently used liquid electrolytes.

Sulfide compounds with high Li-ion conductivity are not commonly available, and as such, the development of solid state electrolyte–based Li-ion batteries has been hampered by the lack of widespread availability of these difficult-to-produce materials.

NEI developed a process for producing sulfide materials in a form that allows them to be used in Li-ion cells.

By making solid state electrolyte powders readily available in test quantities, our intent is to make it easy for Li- ion battery researchers to develop the next generation of all-solid-state Li-ion batteries. The NEI process is amenable to synthesizing variants of LSPS, such as compositional changes.
—Dr. Ganesh Skandan, CEO of NEI Corporation

Renault signs on as official partner of Spark Racing Technology for Formula E

2013-05-17T04:21:00-07:00

Renault SAS has signed on as official Technical Partner of Spark Racing Technology (SRT) to supply the Formula E cars to be entered in the FIA Formula E Championship.

Spark Racing Technology was founded in November 2012 for the creation and assembly of cars participating in the FIA World Championship Formula E. Formula E is a new FIA (Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile) championship featuring racing cars powered exclusively by electric energy. It represents a vision for the future of the motor industry over the coming decades. The races will be held in the heart of the world’s leading cities, around their main landmarks. Demonstrations of the first cars will commence in 2013, followed by the first official electric car race in 2014. The plan is for a grid of 10 teams and 20 drivers in 2014.

SRT earlier entered into an agreement with McLaren Electronic Systems to design and construct the powertrain for the first Formula E car.

Renault’s expertise in electric powertrain design and integration acquired both in production E.V. and in Formula 1 makes Renault Sport a natural partner for Spark in this exciting Formula E project.

Engineers from Renault Sport F1 and Renault Sport Technologies will collaborate with Spark Racing Technology team to optimize the electric and electronic layout and performance of the powertrain. Our experience will be particularly valuable to ensure the safety and reliability of the car.
—Patrice Ratti, Managing Director of Renault Sport Technologies

The 42 Formula E single-seaters built for the beginning of the first season will be named “Spark-Renault”.

Mitsubishi to enter 2013 Pikes Peak International Hill Climb with two new MiEV Evolution II electric racers

2013-05-17T03:42:00-07:00

Mitsubishi Motors Corporation (MMC) will compete in the 2013 edition of the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb, 25-30 June 25 to June 30, with the MiEV Evolution II all-electric prototype. MMC’s team will consist of two of the new all-electric four-wheel drive (4WD) racecars.

The four Meidensha motors (2 front, 2 rear) have a maximum output of 100 kW apiece, for 400 kW total. The 50 kWh battery pack is made by Lithium Energy Japan (LEJ), a joint venture between Mitsubishi as GS Yuasa.

MMC entered the Pikes Peak competition for the first time last year with the i-MiEV Evolution all-electric prototype, finishing second in the Electric Division.

Like last year’s i-MiEV Evolution, the MiEV Evolution II uses parts used in production vehicles combined with a high-capacity battery and high-output motors both specially designed by MMC’s suppliers. Based on experience gained from last year’s race, MMC added S-AWC (Super All-Wheel Control) integrated vehicle dynamics control system to a two-front/two-rear four-motor drivetrain for increased handling and control in the MiEV Evolution II.

These, together with a specially-designed body that provides reduced weight and improved aerodynamics, has resulted in a significant improvement in driving dynamics.

MMC will utilize the data and technical knowhow garnered through its participation in the event in its @earth TECHNOLOGY next-generation advanced technology R&D program for eventual use in future production vehicles.

Zero Motorcycles signs first eastern Asia distributor, delivers 59 units to Hong Kong government

2013-05-17T03:00:00-07:00

Electric motorcycle company Zero Motorcycles signed its first eastern Asia distributor, Yuen Ho Trading Company, Ltd. (YHT), based in Hong Kong. In celebration of the occasion, Zero Motorcycles representatives were in Hong Kong presenting the Hong Kong government with 59 MY 2012 Zero S motorcycles as part of Zero’s single largest fleet sale to date.

The majority of the units will be provided to the Hong Kong Police Department for patrolling and special event purposes with a small allocation of the police motorcycles going to the Hong Kong Airport Police for traffic enforcement.

The Hong Kong Agricultural, Fisheries and Conservation Department will be using select motorcycles at country parks. The Transport Department will be using a selected number of motorcycles to conduct motorcycle rider examinations, and the Leisure and Cultural Services Department will be using their Zero S motorcycles for general transportation throughout Hong Kong supporting public parks.

The Zero S has an approximate range of 89 miles (143 km) on a single charge with a top speed of 88 mph (142 km/h). The Police motorcycles have been up fitted with a series of components developed exclusively for traffic enforcement.

All 59 motorcycles were purchased by the Hong Kong government through YHT. Zero Motorcycles participated in an open RFP process and was awarded the contract based on meeting criteria in regards to performance, reliability, after sales commitments and the low cost of operation of the Zero S motorcycle.

Calyx launches higher yielding variety of Resonance carinata oilseed crop

2013-05-17T02:12:00-07:00

Calyx Bio-Ventures Inc. has launched an improved variety of Resonance carinata, an industrial oilseed crop that is proprietary to Calyx’s operating subsidiary, Agrisoma Biosciences Inc. Oil extracted from carinata can be refined into fuels used as 100% petroleum substitutes.

Performance trials of this next-generation variety of Resonance carinata, AAC A110, delivered an average yield improvement of 7% compared to the existing Resonance carinata variety, AAC A100 (where yield is measured as the weight of the crop harvested per acre). AAC A110 also demonstrated an improved meal profile.

The AAC A110 variety was developed and extensively field-tested over the last three growing seasons at multiple locations in Western Canada.

Performance trials of AAC A110 resulted in yields as high as 44 bushels per acre. AAC A110 also resulted in an improved meal (the resulting byproduct of carinata after the oil has been extracted) profile. Resonance carinata produces a high-soluble protein meal that can be sold into the cattle feed market.

AAC A110 has the same seeding rates and crop inputs (fertilizer, weed and insect control) as A100, and costs the same to produce, treat, clean and deliver to farmers.

Beginning with the current planting season, AAC A110 will be the variety of Resonance carinata sold for commercial production.

Rice theorists suggest layered graphene-boron Li-ion electrode material could have twice the capacity of graphite

2013-05-17T02:08:00-07:00

Calculations by the Rice lab of theoretical physicist Boris Yakobson suggest that a layered graphene/boron (C₃B) Li-ion battery anode material should have a capacity about twice that of graphite, with comparable power density and small volume variation during discharge/charge cycles. A paper on the work is published in the ACS Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters.

The researchers found that monolayer C₃B has a capacity of 714 mAh/g (as Li_1.25C₃B), while the capacity of stacked C₃B is 857 mAh/g (as Li_1.5C₃B)—about twice as large as graphite’s 372 mAh/g (as LiC₆). The results help clarify the mechanism of Li storage in low-dimensional materials, and shed light on the rational design of nanoarchitectures for energy storage, the team concluded.

The search for high energy density electrodes is one of the central topics in lithium (Li) ion battery studies...Nanomaterials have been expected to have high storage capacities due to their high surface-to-mass ratio, as compared to three-dimensional (3D) bulk materials. For example, two-dimensional (2D) carbon−graphene, with its record surface-to-mass ratio of 2,630 m²/g, has proven to be a promising matrix for hydrogen storage. However, the experimental studies of Li storage on graphene remain controversial, and it is still not clear whether graphene could have a higher capacity than graphite, which is used commercially as an anode with a capacity of 372 mAh/g (340 mAh/g, including Li own weight).

Some experiments do show high Li capacity for graphene nanosheets, within a few charge/discharge cycles. Yet detailed examination of graphene quality attributes the Li storage to binding with defects, which are created during the fabrication of nanosheets. Furthermore, in situ Raman spectroscopy indicates that the amount of Li absorbed on monolayer graphene is greatly reduced compared to graphite, while the intercalation of Li into few-layer graphene seems to resemble that of graphite.

In order to further clarify this issue, we perform first-principles computations to assess the Li storage in the carbon (C) based nanomaterials. We start from the general description of obtaining battery characteristics from calculations, and then apply it to a Li−graphene system, which shows a distinguishing Li storage behavior compared with graphite. The feasibility of modifying graphene for the Li storage is further explored, which leads to the finding that the layered C₃B compound could be a promising storage medium.
—Liu et al.

The first-principles computations showed that the Li capacity of pristine graphene, limited by Li clustering and phase separation, is lower than that offered by Li intercalation in graphite. The Rice researchers then explored the feasibility of modifying graphene for better Li storage. They found that while certain structural defects in graphene can bind Li stably, a more efficacious approach is through substitution doping with boron (B).

A carbon/boron compound in which a quarter of the carbon atoms are replaced by boron turned out to be nearly ideal as a way to activate graphene’s ability to store lithium, Yakobson said. Boron attracts lithium ions into the matrix, but not so strongly that they can’t be pulled away from a carbon/boron anode by a more attractive cathode.

Having boron in the lattice gives very nice binding, so the capacity is good enough, two times larger than graphite. At the same time, the voltage is also right.
—Boris Yakobson

An important step will be to find a way to synthesize the carbon/boron compound in large quantities.

Co-authors of the paper are Rice research associate Vasilii Artyukhov, Rice graduate student Mingjie Liu and Avetik Harutyunyan, a chief scientist at the Honda Research Institute. Yakobson is the Karl F. Hasselmann Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science and professor of chemistry.

The Honda Research Institute and the Department of Energy (DOE) supported the research. Computations were performed on the Rice DAVinCI system and the National Institute for Computational Sciences Kraken, both funded by the National Science Foundation, and the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center Hopper, supported by the DOE.

Resources

Yuanyue Liu, Vasilii I. Artyukhov, Mingjie Liu, Avetik R. Harutyunyan, and Boris I. Yakobson (2013) Feasibility of Lithium Storage on Graphene and Its Derivatives. The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 4 (10), 1737-1742 doi: 10.1021/jz400491b

Synthetic Genomics and ExxonMobil in new co-funded research agreement to develop algae biofuels

2013-05-16T11:36:05-07:00

Synthetic Genomics Inc. (SGI) announced a new co-funded research agreement with ExxonMobil to develop algae biofuels. The new agreement is a basic science research program that focuses on developing algal strains with significantly improved production characteristics by employing synthetic genomic science and technology. Financial details of the agreement were not disclosed.

In June 2009, SGI and ExxonMobil announced a research and development alliance focused on naturally occurring and conventionally modified algae strains. (Earlier post.) Over the nearly four years working together the companies gained considerable knowledge about the challenges in developing economical and scalable algae biofuels. (Earlier post.)

We look forward to working with ExxonMobil to undertake this in-depth focus on the basic science research to better understand and enhance algae. The new agreement gives us an opportunity to really focus on improving algal strains using our core synthetic biology technologies to develop biofuels.
—J. Craig Venter, Ph.D., SGI’s founder and CEO

SGI said it also made significant strides in understanding algae genetics, growth characteristics, and enhancements to algae to improve algal biomass and lipid productivities.

The new agreement focuses on SGI’s core strengths in synthetic biology and will allow the company to further explore this area of research to develop improved algal strains. The agreement places greater emphasis on basic scientific research to develop strains which reproduce quickly, produce a high proportion of lipids and effectively withstand environmental and operational conditions.

SGI continues to invest in large-scale cultivation and product recovery facilities which will assist the company longer term in the scale-up and commercialization of improved algal strains for food, chemicals and fuel.

SGI currently has two facilities—a smaller scale research greenhouse and laboratory near the SGI campus in La Jolla, CA, and a larger-scale development and commercial production facility with closed photobioreactors, open ponds and product recovery unit operations in Imperial Valley, CA.

Nissan LEAF passes 25,000 sales mark in US

2013-05-16T10:32:21-07:00

The Nissan LEAF has sold more than 25,000 units in the US. The battery-electric car posted its best US sales month yet in March, and a 423.5% year-over-year sales increase in April.

Nissan has sold more than 62,000 units worldwide.

We’re seeing the adoption curve for EVs accelerate, and there is tremendous interest not only on the West Coast but in a number of new strongholds like Atlanta, Raleigh, Denver, Dallas, Chicago, St. Louis and many more.
—Erik Gottfried, Nissan director of electric vehicle (EV) marketing and sales strategy

Nissan continues to make progress with its commitment to enhance the charging infrastructure in the United States and since announcing plans earlier this year to triple the number of quick chargers from 200 to 600, Nissan and its charging partners already have installed about 50 additional units where interest in LEAF and EVs is highest.

Nissan is taking a three-prong approach to bolster infrastructure by working with commercial charging partners to bring a variety of charging options to our customers, collaborating with businesses to encourage workplace charging on their campuses and engaging in pilots with our dealers to determine how to optimize the role they can play in EV infrastructure.
—Brendan Jones, Nissan’s director of EV infrastructure strategy and deployment

Porsche introduces 918 Spyder plug-in hybrid sports car

2013-05-16T09:56:52-07:00

The 918 Spyder. Click to enlarge.

Porsche has introduced the 918 Spyder plug-in hybrid sports car, the first of six or more plug-in hybrids coming from the Volkswagen Group. (Earlier post.) Porsche had unveiled the concept version of the 918 Spyder Plug-in Hybrid at the Geneva Motor Show in 2010. (Earlier post.)

The 918 Spyder features a novel all-wheel drive concept with a combination of a 608 hp (453 kW) V8 combustion engine, 115 kW electric motor on the rear axle and ~95 kW electric motor on the front axle. Combined system power is 887 hp (661 kW). It is based on knowledge gained by Porsche during motor races with the 911 GT3 R flywheel Hybrid (earlier post).

V8. The main source of propulsion is the 4.6-liter V8 derived directly from the power unit of the successful RS Spyder. Like the race engine of the RS Spyder, the 918 Spyder power unit features dry-sump lubrication with a separate oil tank and oil extraction. To save weight, components such as the oil tank, the air filter box integrated into the subframe and the air induction are made of carbon fiber reinforced polymer.

Further extensive lightweight design measures have resulted in such features as titanium connecting rods, thin-wall, low-pressure casting on the crank case and the cylinder heads, a high-strength, lightweight steel crankshaft with 180 degrees crankpin offset and the extremely thin-walled alloy steel/nickel exhaust system.

The V8 no longer supports any auxiliary systems, there are no external belt drives and the engine is therefore particularly compact. Weight and performance optimizations achieve a power output per liter of approx. 133 hp/l—the highest power output per liter of a Porsche naturally aspirated engine—which is significantly higher than that of the Carrera GT (106 hp/l).

Tailpipe terminate in upper part of rear end. Click to enlarge.

The tailpipes terminate in the upper part of the rear end immediately above the engine; no other production vehicle uses this solution. The top pipes’ greatest benefit is optimal heat removal, because the hot exhaust gases are released via the shortest possible route, and exhaust gas back pressure remains low. This design requires a new thermodynamic air channeling concept.

With the HSI engine, the hot side is located inside the cylinder V, the intake channels are on the outside. There is another benefit as well: the engine compartment remains cooler. This is especially beneficial to the lithium-ion traction battery, as it provides optimum performance at temperatures between 68 and 104 degrees Fahrenheit. Consequently, less energy needs to be used for active cooling of the battery.

Hybrid modules. The V8 engine is coupled to the hybrid module—the 918 Spyder is designed as a parallel hybrid as are the current hybrid models from Porsche. Essentially, the hybrid module comprises a 115 kW electric motor and a decoupler that serves as the connection with the combustion engine.

Because of its parallel hybrid configuration, the 918 Spyder can be powered at the rear axle either individually by the combustion engine or electric motor or via both drives jointly.

A seven-speed Doppelkupplung (PDK) transmission handles power transmission to the rear axle. The high-performance transmission is the sportiest version of the successful PDK; it has undergone a complete redesign for the 918 Spyder and has been further optimized for high performance.

To ensure a low mounting position for a low center of gravity of the entire vehicle, the gear unit was turned “upside down" by rotating it 180 degrees about its longitudinal axis, in contrast to other Porsche series. If no power is required on the rear axle, the two motors can be decoupled by opening the decoupler and PDK clutches. This is the action behind the Porsche hybrid drive’s typical “coasting" with the combustion engine switched off.

The front axle is equipped with another independent electric motor with an output of approximately 95 kW. The front electric drive unit drives the wheels at a fixed ratio. A decoupler decouples the electric motor at high speeds to prevent the motor from over-revving. Drive torque is independently controlled for each axle. This makes for very responsive all-wheel drive functionality that offers great potential in terms of traction and driving dynamics.

Li-ion battery. The 6.8 kWh, liquid-cooled lithium-ion battery pack comprises 312 individual cells and delivers 220 kW maximum power. The battery of the 918 Spyder has a performance-oriented design in terms of both power charging and output, so that it can fulfill the performance requirements of the electric motor.

The power capacity and the operating life of the lithium-ion traction battery depend on several factors, including thermal conditions. The global warranty period for the traction battery is seven years.

Porsche developed a new system with a plug-in vehicle charge port and improved recuperation potential. This vehicle charge port in the B-pillar on the front passenger side lets users connect the storage battery to an electrical supply at home to charge it. The charge port is standardized for the country of purchase.

The on-board charger is located close to the traction battery. It converts the alternating current of the household electric supply into direct current with a maximum charge output of 3.6 kW. Using the supplied Porsche Universal Charger (AC), the traction battery can be charged with a conventional wall plug in seven hours from a 10A-rated, fused power socket a US 110 Volt household electrical supply, for example.

Furthermore, the Porsche Universal Charger (AC) can be installed at home in the garage using the Charging Dock. It enables rapid and convenient charging within approximately two hours, irrespective of regional conditions. The Porsche Speed Charging Station (DC) is available as an optional extra. It can fully charge the high-voltage battery of the 918 Spyder in just 25 minutes.

Five operating modes. The Porsche developers defined five operating modes for the 918 Spyder that can be activated via a “map switch" on the steering wheel, just as in motorsport cars. On the basis of this pre-selection, the 918 Spyder applies the most suitable operating and boost strategy without driver intervention, thus allowing the driver to concentrate fully on the road.

E-Power. E-Power mode is the default operating mode at start-up, as long as the battery is sufficiently charged. In ideal conditions, the 918 Spyder can cover approximately 18 miles (29 km) on battery power. In pure electric mode, the 918 Spyder accelerates from 0 to 62 mph in seven seconds and can reach speeds of up to 93 mph. In this mode, the combustion engine is only used when needed. If the battery’s charge state drops below a set minimum value, the vehicle automatically switches to hybrid mode.
Hybrid. In Hybrid mode, the electric motors and combustion engine work alternately with a focus on maximum efficiency and minimum fuel consumption. The use of individual drive components is modified as a function of the current driving situation and the desired performance. The Hybrid mode is typically used for a fuel economy-oriented driving style.
Sport Hybrid. In more dynamic situations, the 918 Spyder selects the Sport Hybrid mode for its power sources. The combustion engine now operates continuously and provides the main propulsive force. In addition, the electric motors provide support in the form of electric boosting or when the operating point of the combustion engine can be optimized for greater efficiency. The focus of this mode is on performance and a sporty driving style at top speed.
Race Hybrid. Race Hybrid is the mode for maximum performance and an especially sporty driving style. The combustion engine is chiefly used under high load, and charges the battery when the driver is not utilizing its maximum output. Again, the electric motors provide additional support in the form of boosting. Furthermore, the gear-shifting program of the PDK is set up for even sportier driving.
he electric motors are used up to the maximum power output limit to deliver the best possible performance for the race track. In this mode, the battery charge state is not kept constant, rather it fluctuates over the entire charge range. In contrast to Sport Hybrid mode, the electric motors run at their maximum power output limit for a short time for better boosting. This increased output is balanced by the combustion engine charging the battery more intensively. Electric power is thus available even with several very fast laps.
Hot Lap. The Hot Lap button in the middle of the map switch releases the final reserves of the 918 Spyder and can only be activated in “Race Hybrid" mode. Similar to a qualification mode, this pushes the traction battery to its maximum power output limits for a few fast laps. This mode uses all of the available energy in the battery.

Weight. The entire load-bearing structure is made of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) for extreme torsional rigidity. Additional crash elements at the front and rear absorb and reduce the energy of a collision. The car’s unladen weight of approximately 3,715 lbs. (3,616 lbs. with “Weissach" package), a low weight for a hybrid vehicle of this performance class, is largely attributable to this concept, Porsche said.

The drivetrain components and all components weighing above 110 lbs. (50 kg) are located as low and as centrally as possible within the vehicle. This results in a slightly rear-end biased axle load distribution of 57% on the rear axle and 43% on the front axle, combined with an extremely low center of gravity at approximately the height of the wheel hubs, which is ideal for driving dynamics.

The central and low position of the traction battery directly behind the driver not only supports efforts to concentrate masses and lower the center of gravity; it also provides the best temperature conditions for optimum battery power capacity.

Chassis with rear-axle steering. The multi-link chassis of the Porsche 918 Spyder is inspired by motorsport design, complemented by additional systems such as the Porsche Active Suspension Management (PASM adaptive shock-absorber system and rear-axle steering. Basically, this incorporates an electro-mechanical adjustment system at each rear wheel.

The adjustment is speed-sensitive and executes steering angles of up to three degrees in each direction. The rear axle can therefore be steered in the same direction as the front wheels or in opposition to them. At low speeds, the system steers the rear wheels in a direction opposite to that of the front wheels.

This makes cornering even more direct, faster and more precise, and it reduces the turning circle. At higher speeds, the system steers the rear wheels in the same direction as the front wheels. This significantly improves the stability of the rear end when changing lanes quickly. The result is very secure and stable handling.

Porsche Active Aerodynamic (PAA). Porsche Active Aerodynamic (PAA), a system of adjustable aerodynamic elements, ensures variable aerodynamics; its layout is automatically varied over three modes ranging from optimal efficiency to maximum downforce and is tuned to the operating modes of the hybrid drive system.

In “Race" mode, the retractable rear wing is set to a steep angle to generate high downforce at the rear axle. The spoiler positioned between the two wing supports near the trailing edge of the airflow also extends. In addition, two adjustable air flaps are opened in the underfloor in front of the front axle, and they direct a portion of the air into the diffuser channels of the underbody structure. This also produces a ground effect at the front axle.
In “Sport" mode, the aerodynamic control system reduces the attack angle of the rear wing somewhat, which enables a higher top speed. The spoiler remains extended. The aerodynamic flaps in the underfloor area close, which also reduces aerodynamic drag and increases attainable vehicle speeds.
In “E" mode, the control is configured entirely for low aerodynamic drag; the rear wing and spoiler are retracted and the underfloor flaps are closed.

Adjustable air inlets under the main headlights round off the adaptive aerodynamic system. When the vehicle is stationary and in “Race" and “Sport" mode, they are opened for maximum cooling air intake. In “E-Power" and “Hybrid" modes, they close immediately after the car is driven off in order to keep aerodynamic drag to a minimum. They are not opened until the car reaches speeds of approximately 81 mph (130 km/h) or when cooling requirements are higher.

Hong Kong launches first battery-electric taxi fleet with BYD e6; new charging stations

2013-05-16T07:57:42-07:00

BYD announced the launch of Hong Kong’s first all-electric taxi fleet using the BYD e6 electric cross-over sedan. BYD collaborated with Sime Darby Motors Group (Sime Darby), Hong Kong Taxi & Public Light Bus Association Limited, The Link Management Limited, CLP Power Hong Kong Limited and The Hong Kong Electric Company Limited to place into service the first batch of 45 BYD e6 Taxis.

Hongkong first pure electric taxi fleet. Click to enlarge.

BYD also announced that the e6 “Taxi version” and e6 “Premier” sedan were now officially on sale in Hong Kong. The 5-passenger BYD e6 offers a range of up to 300 km (186 miles), according to BYD.

In conjunction with the introduction of the electric taxi fleet and the e6 Premier sedans, BYD is setting up 47 chargers in 9 charging locations near car parks throughout Hong Kong as the first phase of deployment. To address the anticipated growth of EV adoption, BYD plans to increase the number of charging facilities as adoption rolls out.

These charging stations are now dispersed across Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, New Territories and Lantau Island. The selection of these locations was optimized with the taxi-driver, shift-change locations, while taking into consideration the distance between each station and forming a reasonable coverage network for convenience. BYD anticipates that a one-hour recharge would only be needed per shift (during a rest or lunch break).

Toyota factory in France starts Yaris production for North American export

2013-05-16T07:45:22-07:00

Toyota Motor Manufacturing France (TMMF) has started production of the Toyota Yaris compact car for export to the US, Canada and Puerto Rico. The model produced is the conventional gasoline-fueled Yaris and annual export volume will be around 25,000 units on a full-year basis.

An additional €10 million (US$12.9 million) has been invested by TMMF to build the Yaris to the specific requirements of the new export market.

TMMF will now export its vehicles to more than 40 countries.

The Toyota Yaris became the first vehicle ever produced in France to be certified with the new “French Origin Guaranteed” (“Origine France Garantie”) label. This certificate was created in order to help customers identify products that have more than 50% of their value manufactured in France.

The current, third-generation Toyota Yaris was launched in Europe in the summer of 2011, followed by the Toyota Yaris Hybrid in June 2012. In an overall declining B-segment, the Yaris model range grew 27% in 2012 compared to 2011, mainly supported by strong sales of the Yaris Hybrid. With sales of 182,841 vehicles, the Yaris model accounted for nearly 22% of Toyota’s total European sales in 2012.

Volkswagen building new plant in south-central China with 300K unit annual capacity

2013-05-16T07:01:10-07:00

Volkswagen broke ground on a new vehicle plant in Changsha in the province of Hunan, south-central China. The new plant in Changsha, being built in cooperation with the Chinese joint venture Shanghai-Volkswagen (SVW), is scheduled for completion end of 2015 and will manufacture approximately 300,000 vehicles per year.

Volkswagen is expanding its capacity in China to four million vehicles per year by 2018, said Prof. Dr. Jochem Heizmann, Member of the Board of Management of Volkswagen AG with responsibility for China and President and CEO of Volkswagen Group China.

A complete production facility with press shop, body shop, paint shop and final assembly is being built. Priority is being given to reducing energy and water consumption as well as CO₂ and solvent emissions, and to cutting back waste volumes in line with the “Think Blue. Factory.” program.

The Changsha plant is part of the €9.8-billion (US$12.5-billion) investment program being realized by the two Chinese joint ventures in the period to 2015. The aim of the investment projects financed from the cash flow of the two joint ventures Shanghai-Volkswagen and FAW-Volkswagen is to consolidate the Volkswagen Group’s leading position on the Chinese passenger car market. The investments focus on developing new models and expanding production capacity. The Changsha factory is one of seven new plants to be built in China this year and over the coming years.

Shanghai-Volkswagen currently operates vehicle plants in Shanghai and Nanjing as well as Yizheng in the province of Jiangsu. Further factories are being built in Ningbo and in Urumqi under the “Go West” strategy.

FAW-Volkswagen operates vehicle plants in Changchun and Chengdu. The factory in Foshan which is currently under construction will be FAW-Volkswagen’s first plant in Southern China.

Together with its partners FAW-Volkswagen and Shanghai-Volkswagen, the Volkswagen Group currently builds 20 models of the Volkswagen, ŠKODA and Audi brands in China.

Volvo Car Group boosts production of V60 PHEV by 90%; 7,600 units in 2013

2013-05-16T06:54:49-07:00

Volvo Car Group (Volvo Cars) is ramping up production of the V60 Plug-in Hybrid (earlier post) by 90% to meet demand, especially in Holland, Belgium and Italy. Production at the Torslanda plant in Sweden will be increased continuously from 150 to 282 units per week. All in all, Volvo Cars will produce 7,600 plug-in hybrids in 2013, with a 2014 target of 10,000 units.

The driver of the V60 Plug-in Hybrid selects the required driving mode via three buttons in the dashboard: Pure, Hybrid or Power.

In the default hybrid mode, the carbon dioxide emissions are 48 g/km. This corresponds to fuel consumption of 1.8 l/100 km (131 mpg US) in the NEDC certification driving cycle for hybrids.

The driver can also choose to cover up to 50 km (31 miles) on battery power, or use the combined capacity of the diesel engine and electric motor to deliver 215+70 horsepower and 440+200 N·m of torque.

The Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid is the synthesis of close cooperation between Volvo Car Group and the Swedish electricity supplier Vattenfall. The two companies have financed the development project jointly.

Axens and Headwaters Technology Innovation partner on residual heavy oil upgrading

2013-05-16T04:30:00-07:00

Axens has entered into a technology alliance with Headwaters Technology Innovation (HTI) to promote the combined use of Axens’ and HTI’s technologies to produce clean liquid fuels from residual heavy oil (“bottom-of-the-barrel”, or what remains of crude oil after gasoline and the distillate fuel oils are extracted).

The alliance enables the companies to offer HTI’s proprietary HCAT Hydrocracking Technology in conjunction with Axens’ H-Oil ebullated bed (a type of moving bed reactor) hydrocracking process for resid upgrading.

HCAT technology is a proprietary, patented catalyst that improves residue hydrocracking, creating higher-residue conversion to lighter distillates such as diesel and gasoline.

Axens’ H-Oil_RC (RC stands for Resid Cracking) process uses ebullated-bed catalytic hydrocracking technology to process heavy feedstock residues (Atmospheric and Vacuum Residue) with high metals, sulfur, nitrogen, asphaltenes and solid contents.

This technology has been in development over the past 50 years, with one of the first units started in 1968 and still in operation today. Ebullated bed hydrocracking reactors are currently in use at 12 refineries around the world, Axens says, with several new H-Oil Units in development.

While all ebullated bed systems are designed to attain relatively high levels of residual oil conversion (50 to 85% depending on the feedstock), the combination of the H-Oil and HCAT Technologies, through the addition of HTI’s proprietary liquid catalyst precursor, enables even higher performance levels, either through enabling higher conversion levels than were previously possible, or by allowing refiners to utilize poorer-quality, lower cost crude oil feedstocks, the partners said.

Congressmen introduce bill to allow ethanol produced from natural gas to be included under RFS

2013-05-16T03:45:00-07:00

Rep. Pete Olson (R-TX) and Rep. Jim Costa (D-CA) introduced legislation—the Domestic Alternative Fuels Act, H.R. 1959—that would allow ethanol produced from domestic natural gas to be included under the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) and compete with corn-based ethanol.

Original co-sponsors include: Rep. Ted Poe (R-TX); Rep. Henry Cuellar (D-TX); Rep. Eric “Rick” Crawford (R-AR); Rep. Ralph Hall (R-TX); Rep. Tom Cole (R-OK); Rep. Gene Green (D-TX); Rep. Blake Fahrenthold (R-TX); Rep. Tim Griffin (R-AR); Rep. Bill Flores (R-TX); Rep. Joe Barton (R-TX); Rep. Kurt Schrader (D-OR); Rep. Filemon Vela (D-TX); Rep. Peter Welch (D-VT); Rep. Randy Neugebauer (R-TX); and Rep. Thomas Marino (R-PA).

H.R. 1959 would establish Domestic Alternative Fuel as an independent fuel category and list it within the regulations that specify volume obligations to meet the RFS.

Groups in support of the Domestic Alternative Fuels Act include: National Cattlemen’s Beef Association, National Chicken Council, America’s Natural Gas Alliance.

EBI researchers develop high-temperature enzyme for hydrolyzing biomass

2013-05-16T03:00:00-07:00

Researchers with the Energy Biosciences Institute (EBI) have employed a promising technique for improving the ability of enzymes that break cellulose down into fermentable sugars to operate in temperatures between 65 and 70 degrees Celsius. Using this technique, they successfully engineered a high-temperature enzyme variant with greater activity and stability over the desired temperature range.

The EBI research team, which includes Douglas Clark and Harvey Blanch, who hold joint appointments with Berkeley Lab’s Physical Biosciences Division and UC Berkeley’s Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Department, and postdoctoral researcher Harshal Chokhawala, used a strategy they call “B-factor guided mutagenesis.” They used it to enhance the thermal stability of TrEGI, an endoglucanase enzyme produced by Trichoderma reesei, a fungus considered to be the gold standard for secreting cellulase enzymes.

Lignocellulose hydrolysis using cellulases at high temperatures offers several potential advantages, including higher solid loadings due to reduced viscosity, lower risk of microbial contamination, greater compatibility with high temperature pretreatments, enhanced mass transfer and faster rates of hydrolysis. However, T. reesei cellulases are not very stable at temperatures above 50 degrees Celsius. We’ve shown that we can improve the thermal stability of T. reesei cellulases with the B-factor approach.
—Douglas Clark

Like all proteins, cellulase enzymes are comprised of chains of individual amino acids that are linked together into uniquely shaped structures. Every amino acid in a given enzyme has a “B-factor” value that corresponds to the flexibility of that amino acid. The higher the B-factor value, the greater the amino acid’s flexibility.

Just like the loosest knots in a rope will unravel first, the most flexible amino acids in an enzyme are the most likely to fall out of place when the protein is thermally stressed. Tightening up these portions of the enzyme by mutating the amino acids and decreasing their B factor values represents one way to shore up the structure and increase the thermal stability of the protein.
—Douglas Clark

In a presentation at the recent American Chemical Society national meeting in New Orleans, Clark described how he and his colleagues screened some 11,000 mutant versions of TrEGI then used a heat treatment at 50 degrees Celsius to identify some 500 variant candidates. Applying the B-factor guided mutagenesis, they engineered a TrEGI that was up to twice as active on insoluble lignocellulosic substrates as the native enzyme at temperatures ranging from 50-65 degrees Celsius. Engineered TrEGI expressed in the model fungus Neurospora crassa was able to hydrolyze lignocellulosic biomass at 60 degrees Celsius as efficiently as the native TrEGI at 50 degrees Celsius. By comparison, TrEGI mutants expressed in extracts of Escherichia coli or in the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae had much lower activity at the higher temperatures.

Our results demonstrate that the host used for recombinant cellulase production can have a profound impact on the activity and stability of the expressed enzyme, which means favorable mutagenesis results observed for one host may not carry over to another. So far the mutants we’ve produced in N. crassa exhibit very favorable properties and the results we’re getting will help guide further efforts in engineering optimal enzyme performance for biofuels applications.
—Douglas Clark

The EBI, which provided the funding for this research, is a collaborative partnership between BP, the funding agency, UC Berkeley, Berkeley Lab and the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Lexus begins sales of new IS 300h hybrid in Japan along with new IS lineup

2013-05-16T03:00:00-07:00

IS 300h. Click to enlarge.

Lexus has begun sales of the new IS sports sedan lineup in Japan with the introduction of the redesigned IS 350 and IS 250, and the introduction of the IS 300h hybrid. Monthly sales target for the hybrid model in Japan is 800 units. Lexus unveiled the new 2014 IS sport sedan at the North American International Auto Show in January. (Earlier post.)

The IS 300h achieves fuel economy of 23.2 km/L (54.6 mpg US, 4.3 l/100 km) and CO₂ emissions of 100 g/km under the Japanese MLIT JC08 test cycle. This performance exceeds the 2015 fuel efficiency standards by 20% and the 2005 standards of the MLIT approval system for low-emission vehicles by 75%.

The newly developed hybrid system of the IS 300h combines a longitudinally mounted, 2.5-liter in-line, four-cylinder Atkinson cycle engine for rear-wheel-drive vehicles with a high-torque motor.

The engine delivers up to 131 kW (176 hp) at 6,000 rpm, with maximum torque of 221 N·m (163 lb-ft) from 4,200—4,800 rpm. The motor offers maximum output of 105 kW, and maximum torque of 300 N·m (221 lb-ft). Combined system output is 162 kW (217 hp).

The next-generation D-4S (direct-injection four-stroke gasoline engine) fuel injection provides high fuel efficiency and high output, with the 2AR-FSE engine achieving a maximum thermal efficiency of 38.5%.

Placement of the hybrid battery has been optimized to allow the installation of 60:40 split rear-folding seats, thereby providing class-leading interior and cargo space.

New production methods such as laser screw welding, which achieves a finer pitch than conventional spot welding; and the use of structural adhesive, which integrates body surfaces and controls deflection, were implemented to increase body rigidity and provide exceptional maneuverability and driving stability.

The IS features Lane Departure Alert (LDA), a system that alerts the driver with an audio and visual warning if it detects that the vehicle is drifting from its lane.

The Blind Spot Monitor (BSM) assists the driver in changing lanes safely through the use of quasi-millimeter wave radar to detect vehicles in blind spots.

The Pre-collision System with millimeter-wave radar features improved Pre-collision Brake Assist and Pre-collision Brakes to effectively mitigate damage in more than 90% of rear-end collisions.