• representations within the family circle;
• private copies;
• on condition that the name of the author and the source are clearly stated:
  • analyses and short quotes;
  • press reviews;
  • dissemination of certain speeches intended for the public;
  • reproductions of works or graphic or visual art intended to appear in a judicial sale’s catalogue;
  • representations or reproductions of excerpts of works for teaching purposes;
• parody, pastiche and caricature, observing the rules of the genre;
• acts necessary to access the contents of an electronic database;
• provisional, transient or incidental reproduction;
• exception for the benefit of the disabled;
• exception for the benefit of the libraries; museums or archive services;
• the reproduction or representation, in full or in par of works of graphic or visual or architectural art for information purposes;
• exceptions with respect to software;
• exceptions with respect to databases; and
• exception provided for with respect to the French Heritage Code, concerning legal deposit.

Some French organizations protecting and defending the authors’ rights have been challenging this initiative.  In an open letter to Hadopi, Authors and Composers French Syndicate (SNAC) and National Union of Authors and Composers (UNAC) complained that they had not been informed about the survey prior to its release.  They also challenged Hadopi’s authority in launching such a project.  They further wrote that “the philosophy of this questionnaire already shows a willingness to put into question one of the foundations of copyright by suggesting the possibility of creating and recognizing a genuine exception right to the exclusive property of the creator”, and refused momentarily to participate to the survey.

On May 1, the DigitalHHR team will present "Crossing the Digital Border: Exploiting Digital Content and Devices Overseas", the next in its on-going series of live, CLE-accredited webinars.

In a world dominated by consumer devices, from tablets to smartphones, the explosive consumption of digital content seems endless, failing to heed the boundaries that separate nations in the new global economy. The rise of cross-border transactions has created a myriad of complicated legal and business issues associated with the production, distribution and marketing of digital entertainment products and services on an international scale.  Device manufacturers, content creators, publishers and other service providers alike have been faced with the daunting task of navigating the constantly shifting landscape made up of varying laws, industry standards, and other issues that arise when transacting business across multiple jurisdictions.

Through the use of a case study involving the marketing, distribution, licensing and sale of digital content and a corresponding device in the US and EU, this Digitalhhr.com-hosted, publicly available CLE-accredited Webinar will explore and focus on the essential legal and business challenges associated with such cross-border transactions. Our US and EU team will address topics including the business and legal issues applicable to the following:

• Intellectual property protection, enforcement and compliance;
• Digital content distribution, rights clearances and transaction processing;
• Consumer data protection and other privacy-related matters; and
• Manufacturing, supply chain management and technical standards compliance.

The Webinar will take place on May 1, 2012, from 12:00 PM EDT to 1:30 PM EDT.

To register, click here.

In his prepared remarks released with the report, FTC chair Jon Leibowitz reiterated that consumers should have choice and control when it comes to revealing their personal information.  He noted that the report is grounded in three principles that companies should follow to ensure that consumers have that control.  First, through “privacy by design”, that is the incorporation of privacy protections into products as they are developed.  Second, providing consumers choice about how their data is collected and used.  And third, providing more transparency to consumers through clear explanations of data handling practices.

The legislative recommendation made by the Commission was somewhat general, calling on Congress to consider enacting “baseline privacy legislation that is technologically neutral and sufficiently flexible to allow companies to continue to innovate.”  One area of the legislation that the Commission focused on was the data brokerage industry, with the Commission calling for targeted legislation that would provide consumers with access to information about them held by a data broker.

The Commission specifically noted that the legislation should not impose an undue burden on businesses that already incorporate into their practices the Fair Information Practice Principles (“FIPPS”), which were set forth in the Obama Administration’s data privacy “white paper” issued in February.  (The FIPPS articulated in the white paper are: (i) transparency, (ii) individual control, (iii) respect for context, (iv) security, (v) access, (vi) accuracy, (vii) focused collection and (viii) accountability.)  The Commission envisions legislation that provides businesses with certainty of their obligations, as well as a scheme of civil penalties and remedies to act as a disincentive to disregard those obligations.

While the scope and detail of any privacy legislation will be left to Congress, the FTC will continue to press the industry on self-regulatory measures to implement its privacy framework.  That framework focuses on five main action items: 

• Implementation of an “easy-to-use, persistent and effective” Do Not Track system
• Improved privacy protection in the Mobile space, including development of short, meaningful disclosures
• Address the invisibility of collection practices of Data Brokers by calling for the creation of a centralized website where data brokers could (i) identify themselves and describe how they collect and use data and (ii) detail access rights and other choices provided to consumers
• Continued review of the tracking activities of Large Platform Providers such as ISPs, social media services, operating systems and browsers
• Promoting enforceable self-regulatory codes, including using the failure of companies to abide by self-regulatory programs they join as the basis for a suit for unfair or deceptive practices. 

None of these broader principles are groundbreaking.  The news, to the extent there was any, came from the detailed discussions of some of the points.  Some examples:

• In a nod to those concerned with the burden that compliance with the framework might place on smaller businesses, the Commission stated that privacy disclosures are not needed for entities that collect limited amounts of non-sensitive data from under 5,000 consumers for their own use (i.e., the data is not shared with third parties).
• The Commission stated unequivocally that the framework applies in all commercial contexts, both online and offline.
• In addressing data that is collected through a consumer device which may not necessarily be considered “personally identifiable information” (PII), the Commission determined that the framework would apply to data that can be “reasonably linked to a specific consumer, computer or other device.”  In clarifying the standard, the Commission provided guidance to companies to minimize linkability, including taking reasonable measures to “de-identify” the data, publicly committing to maintain and use the data only in such “de-identified” fashion and not attempt to “re-identify” the data and contractually prohibiting third parties they share the data with from re-identifying it.

Overall, the report appears to be a reflection of the current, baseline state of affairs in the privacy and data collection ecosystem.  And by promoting best practices and self-regulation approach, the Commission’s approach to privacy is to lead from behind, taking aggressive action primarily against “bad actors” and industry outliers.

Those businesses that adhere to best practices likely need not be overly concerned by the report.  However, it is important for them to consider how the FTC might use the framework set forth in the report (which reflects current practices) to interpret future business initiatives not yet conceived or contemplated.  In that regard, Chairman Leibowitz’ “resounding” statement that “consumers should have choice and control” should never be ignored.

The theme for the conference is “Advances in Content Security and Reliability.”  Dan will part of a panel entitled “Privacy Issues, Reliability Questions, Security Concerns in the Cloud Computing Space” along with executives from Trend Micro, Numagic Consulting, Vobile, among others.  Wayne’s  panel, entitled “Years Ahead of Cloud Computing” will include executives from IBM Global Business Services, RedThorne Media, WSO2, Salesforce.com and others.

More infomation on the conference is available at the NAB Show website.

EU Extends Copyright for Sound Recordings by 20 Years

In the European Union, popular music recordings from the 1960’s from acts such as the Beatles and the Rolling Stones were poised to enter the public domain as a result of the expiration of their 50-year copyright term.  In September 2011, however, the European Union voted to extend copyright protection for these works for another 20 years. 

 Perhaps to assuage critics who claim that record labels (and not struggling musicians) will benefit most from the extension, the new EU directive contains a number of accompanying measures to provide balance to individual musicians who may not directly benefit from the copyright extension, including the following:

•  rights to a sound recording may revert to the artist if the record label does not make the recording available for sale to the public (the “use it or lose it” clause);
• a “clean slate” provision that prevents the record label from making any deductions during the extended copyright term from the contractual royalties due to featured artists; and
• creation of a fund, financed by record labels with a percentage of benefits obtained from the copyright extension, for session musicians who signed away rights when a recording was made.

Details as to how some of these measures will be implemented or enforced is not clear from the language of the new directive.  Nevertheless, it seems likely that EU Member States will be expected to implement these accompanying measures in addition to the term extension. 

U.S. Supreme Court Restores Copyright Protection to Foreign Works

On January 18, the U.S. Supreme Court, in a decision watched closely by musicians, publishers, educators, orchestra conductors, upheld a federal law restoring copyright protection to millions of books, paintings, films and musical compositions by foreign artists that were previously in the US public domain.  In doing so, the Court rejected constitutional challenges to the law, holding that nothing in the Copyright Clause or the First Amendment “makes the public domain, in any and all cases, a territory that works may never exit.” 

 The case, Golan v. Holder (docket 10-545), involved a 1994 law enacted by Congress (which became Section 514 of the Copyright Act) to implement certain provisions of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works.  Article 18 of the Berne Convention required member countries to accord other countries minimum levels of copyright protection and treat authors of other countries in the same manner as they treat their own with respect to that protection.  While the U.S. joined Berne in 1989, it did not implement Article 18, in effect, disregarding protection for foreign works.  In 1994, the Berne Convention specifically mandated implementation of Article 18, leading Congress to enact Section 514, which was challenged in Golan.  Section 514 granted copyright protection in the U.S. to foreign works on the same basis as enjoyed under foreign copyright law. 

 Since prior to the enactment of Section 514, the U.S. did not recognize the foreign copyright protection of these works, they were considered to be in the American public domain.  Thus, upholding the application of Section 514, with its equal treatment of works under foreign copyright law, has the effect of providing copyright protection to works that were previously in the public domain.  As noted by Justice Ginsberg, the law merely puts “foreign works on an equal footing with their U.S. counterparts.”

Other provisions of Section 514 take into consideration its impact and attempt to ease transition to the new regime.  In particular:

•  restored works will only be protected until the expiration of the full copyright terms, whether that expiration occurs in the U.S. or in the origin country;
• reanimation of copyright will be limited to only the remainder of the copyright term the work would have been entitled had it never entered the public domain;
•  “reliance parties” who used or acquired a foreign work in the public domain prior to the enactment of Section 514 will be allowed to continue to use the work until the copyright owner gives notice of an intent to enforce; and
• derivative works based on restored or reanimated work must only pay the copyright owner “reasonable compensation” to indefinitely exploit the derivation.

As the Supreme Court noted, unanswered questions remain about how Section 514 will be implemented, but the Court did not consider those questions significant enough to require rejection of the law.  In particular, the treatment of “orphan works” (when the copyright owners of the newly regulated foreign material cannot be identified or located), will likely be among the first issues for Congress to resolve next.

“Termination Rights” To Take Effect in the U.S.        

On January 1, 2013, the controversial “termination rights” provision of U.S. copyright law will be triggered, allowing authors (and their heirs) to begin regaining control of their original works from publishers and record labels to whom the works were previously assigned.  For works assigned in 1978 and thereafter, Section 203 of the Copyright Act of 1976 allows an original author to exercise an option to terminate the existing owners’ rights if 35 years have expired since the assignment. 

The wording of this provision suggests that termination rights are absolute for the original author or heirs, and thus would prevail over any written agreements assigning ownership, even if the agreements state that they are in perpetuity.  There is, however, an important exception for “works for hire,” which are deemed the property of the publisher or record label.     

Termination rights are a particularly hot topic for the music business.  Once a master recording reaches its 35-year mark, it is “game on” for the artists and songwriters who wish to reclaim ownership of qualifying songs from publishers and record labels.  However, it is likely that any attempt to recapture rights will hinge on the language of the applicable contracts between the artists and songwriters, on one hand, and labels and publishers, on the other, specifically whether there is clear assignment language (which would be subject to termination) or “work for hire” language (which would leave ownership of the works with the applicable label or publisher). 

One concern with “termination rights” is the lack of clarity in this provision as it may relate to musicians.  For example, it is unclear who exactly can qualify as an “author” of a sound recording, casting some ambiguity over who can share the rights after they revert.  The law is also murky for non-U.S. artists and whether those artists can exercise termination rights on American recordings.  What is clear, however, is that to enforce termination rights, authors (or their heirs) must comply strictly with the law.  Some of the provisions to be aware of include:

•  a requirement to file termination notices as much as ten years in advance of the effective termination date, but no less than two years before the date an author hopes to recoup their work;
• a provision stating that once a song or recording qualifies for termination, the author has five years in which to file a claim or else the right to reclaim the work relapses;
• a rule that, for works created post-1978 with multiple authors or heirs, a majority must agree to terminate; and
• a caveat that the law only has effect in the U.S., so that a publisher assigned a worldwide copyright will still retain control in foreign markets.

For publishers and other existing owners of copyrighted works who face pending terminations, there are certain considerations to keep in mind:

• time is of the essence to reach out to songwriters or their estates to attempt to negotiate a new deal; 
• if a notice of termination has already been issued, only the current publisher may try to enter into a new deal with the songwriter or his estate before the termination takes effect;
• opportunities may exist for new copyright acquisitions from authors who seek to enforce their termination rights against existing copyright holders, but who may be in the market for a deal with a new publisher; and
• consider whether the “works for hire” exception applies. 

We will keep abreast of developments in these areas, particularly as the new implementation and enforcement schemes are developed.  And we are available to assist any copyright stakeholder seeking to assess how these changes in the copyright law may affect their rights.

**  Betsy Pierce, an associate with the Firm, assisted in the research and drafting of this post.

To many, the decision to open up the top-level of the Internet’s namespace has been a long time coming, creating a powerful tool to launch and/or expand brand marketing, promotion and overall recognition into a whole new realm.  However, taking advantage of these new opportunities will not be a simple process, and unfamiliarity with the complexity of registration and application protocols, as well as the array of technical, operational and legal issues that will arise, may be overwhelming to brand leaders and legal representatives alike.  Further, applying for and obtaining a new gTLD is not only time-consuming, but also extremely costly, with initial application fees of $185,000, coupled with overall integration and implementation fees, as well as ongoing yearly maintenance fees in the event that your application is approved at all.  

So what does this mean for you, and your company or association?  Below is a brief overview of the gTLD process, which should help you identify and analyze the associated benefits and risks that may present themselves. 

Navigating the gTLD Application Process

Many are familiar with the registration of a Second-Level Domain (“SLD”), the name, term or phrase to the immediate left of the “dot” in a web address.  For example, in digitalhhr.com, “digitalhhr” is the SLD.  The process for registering an SLD is simple, and in most instances, merely requires a brief search on the internet and payment of a small fee to one of several registrars like register.com or godaddy.com. 

The new gTLD application process is considerably more complex.  Unlike a simple SLD registration, any entity applying for and (if approved) operating a gTLD will ultimately become a registry itself.  ICANN has therefore established a comprehensive and lengthy approval process. 

As part of the submission, applicants are required to provide substantial background information, including information related to corporate and legal structure and financial resources.   In addition to such background screening, the initial evaluation period consists of two primary areas of review: (i) applicant review–where the entity applying for the gTLD (including all individuals named within the application) will be subject to assessment, including an overall examination of technical, operational and financial capabilities, and (ii) string review–where the applicant’s proposed gTLD string will be evaluated. The applicant review focuses on the applicant itself in order to assess whether it has the means necessary to operate a registry, and whether applicant’s registry services would adversely affect the security or stability of the Domain Name System (“DNS”).  The string review, on the other hand, focuses on the applied-for gTLD string in order to assess such issues as whether the proposed gTLD string would create a user confusion, adversely affect DNS security or stability, etc. 

According to ICANN, this initial period of evaluation may take up to 5 months or more and includes a public comment period.  Applicants who successfully complete this process (including surviving any formal objections that can be filed after publication of the completed application) will then be required to enter into a registry agreement with ICANN, as well as pass certain technical tests before the proposed gTLD is activated.  Overall the application process can take anywhere from 9 to 20 months, depending on the complexity of the application. In addition, all applicants will be required to pay a gTLD evaluation fee of $185,000, which shall be payable by the applicant as follows: $5,000 deposit upon applicant’s request for an application and the remaining $180,000 upon submission of the completed application.  Furthermore, applicants may be required to pay additional fees in certain cases, including where extended review is requested by those applicants that do not pass the initial evaluation. 

The New gTLDs and its Affect on Trademark Owners and Brands.

For many entities, the financial expenditure, coupled with the time, resources and personnel necessary to operate a gTLD registry may deter them from moving forward with the process at all.  But even if a decision is made not to affirmatively use the gTLD process to launch and/or expand a brand, companies must still be concerned with protecting their trademarks.

In the tangled web of major stakeholders, complex processes and potential pitfalls, companies are faced with the daunting task of assessing and implementing new protection and monitoring mechanisms in order to protect their trademarks and brands. ICANN itself has integrated several mechanisms within the gTLD program to help provide comfort to trademark owners, including:

• Formal Objection to gTLD Applications: At the close of the initial submission process in April, 2012, ICANN will publish a list of all applications to the general public, which will launch a period for filing formal objections to any application.  A formal objection may be filed on one of the following four grounds: (i) String Confusion Objection, (ii) Legal Rights Objection, (iii) Limited Public Interest Objection, or (iv) Community Objection. All properly filed objections will be subject to dispute resolution proceedings, which shall be administered by one of the following service providers, depending on the grounds for such objection: the Arbitration and Mediation Center of the World Intellectual Property Organization, the International Centre for Dispute Resolution, or the International Center of Expertise of the International Chamber of Commerce.  In the event that a gTLD is delegated, there will also be a post-delegation procedure to address issues that arise. Such objection procedures are set out in much greater detail in ICANN’s gTLD Applicant Guidebook.
•  Trademark Clearinghouse: The Trademark Clearinghouse is a centralized database, which will be provided, operated and maintained by ICANN, in order to store information in connection with third party trademarks. All trademark owners will be able to register their trademarks with the Trademark Clearinghouse. The Trademark Clearinghouse will be supported by individual registry operators through the establishment of individual Trademark Claims Services, as well as a “Sunrise” Process, as further described below.  
• Trademark Claims Service/Domain Name Registration During the “Sunrise” Period:  In accordance with ICANN’s procedures, all new registry operators must implement both Trademark Claims Services and a “Sunrise” Process during the initial period of general registration. The Trademark Claims Services will provide prospective gTLD registrants with notice of any third party trademark rights in and to the desired domain name, provided that such third party has registered with the Trademark Clearinghouse. However, such notice does not completely prevent the prospective registrant from registering such domain name. If the prospective registrant moves forward with the registration of such domain name, and it is registered in the Trademark Clearinghouse, the registrar will have to provide notice to the rights holder that such domain name has been registered.  In addition to such Trademark Claims Services, a “sunrise” period during the start-up phase for registration must be implemented in order to allow for eligible rights holders in the Trademark Clearinghouse first opportunity to register an SLD at the specific gTLD if a third party is seeking a sunrise registration thereof.  Notice to rights holders registered in the Clearinghouse will be provided by the registry operator upon requested registration by a third party. 

These are only some of the means that trademark owners, companies and brands can use in order to protect their marks. However, careful monitoring of ICANN’s application process and individual registrations, and prompt action, will ultimately be necessary on a moving forward basis in order to properly defend against the potential issues that may arise.     

What Now?

Whether you are an entity ready and willing to take on the challenge of registering a new gTLD, or simply looking to go on the defensive to protect your brand, devising the right strategy in response to the arrival of ICANN’s gTLD program is crucial for all brand owners.  

The DigitalHHR team has been working with clients to assist them in understanding the gTLD initiative, evaluating the potential benefits and pitfalls of moving forward with an application and assessing their brand protection needs, and are available to answer any questions you might have.  We will continue to monitor the progress of ICANN program as we near the start of the application window, particularly as details are made available regarding the Trademark Clearing House.

DCIA, the Distributed Computing Industry Association, is an international trade organization focused on commercial advancement of cloud computing and related technologies.  “Content in the Cloud” is part of the 2012 International CES trade show, being held in Las Vegas from January 10 through 13.  CES is the world’s largest consumer technology tradeshow.  More information on the conference is available here.

A great deal of this growth stems from the increased access that children have to devices that are capable of supporting mobile applications, such as smart phones and iPads.  So perhaps it is not unexpected that the mobile app industry has started to attract some negative press, mainly from Congress on behalf of parents concerned about violent content and privacy issues. 

In an effort to preempt Congress from stepping in to regulate mobile apps, two industry groups, the Entertainment Software Rating Board (“ESRB”) and the CTIA (a wireless industry trade association), recently announced a voluntary rating system to help parents to make informed decisions about whether or not a given mobile application is appropriate for their children.  The ESRB has considerable experience in this realm, as they have been in the business of rating computer and console video games since 1994. 

The rating system will consist of two components.  First, there will be rating symbols to indicate age appropriateness.  This will be reflected through a menu of six possible rating symbols: early childhood, everyone, everyone 10+, teen, mature, adults only and rating pending.  Additionally, there will be content descriptors, which will pinpoint specific elements of the app that may have contributed to a given rating.  Content descriptors will include indications of: blood and gore, intense violence, language, sexual violence, and use of drugs.  Furthermore, the content descriptors will disclose whether the app shares personal information, utilizes user-generated content and/or connects to social networks. 

Ratings will be generated automatically based on a developer’s responses to a multiple choice questionnaire that is completed when the developer submits the app to a participating storefront.  The questionnaire is intended to assess the content of an app in light of the two-prong rating.  Developers will have the opportunity to appeal the rating for their apps should they disagree with the rating assigned.  The ESRB will also maintain oversight of the rating system by “routinely testing” the most popular apps and monitoring consumer complaints. 

The system has received a warm welcome in some circles.  AT&T, Verizon Wireless, Sprint, T-Mobile, U.S. Cellular and Microsoft have all signed on as initial subscribers.  But significantly the two largest mobile app providers–Google, the maker of the Android, and Apple, the maker of the iPhone and the iPad–have declined to participate. 

The Google Android Market currently offers more than 300,000 apps which are rated using a four-tier system based on maturity level (everyone, low maturity, medium maturity, high maturity).  Google has publicly stated that they are going to retain their own system because it is well-known and understood by Android users and developers. 

The Apple App store is currently home to over 500,000 apps.  The apps are rated by Apple according to age appropriateness.  Apple has refused to comment on whether or not they will participate in the new rating system, but has not yet included itself as a participant, which is widely understood to mean that they are politely rejecting the invitation. 

The ESRB has stated that due to the Android and Apple rating systems already in place, they are not terribly concerned about this resistance, since “the goal is to get information to consumers.”

Many questions about the mobile app rating system remain and it will be interesting to see how they play out:  First, with one of the principle goals of the system being to establish a standard rating system across all mobile app platforms, will resistance by Google and Apple marginalize this rating system?  Second, can a system that relies on developers to characterize their own applications truly be considered fair and objective?  Third, can a rating system that codes each app be successful  at a time when there are so many apps already available in the market with hundreds being released every day? 

Lastly, will this type of rating system will actually change behavior?  Unlike the movie rating system, which is enforced at the purchase of point, this proposed app system is cannot prevent adult-oriented apps from being accessed by children.  In that regard, it is more like the television rating system, which can provide guidance for parents but is not intended as an “active” shield. 

Interestingly, Apple, as a storefront operator, acts as a gatekeeper at the point of purchase.  When a user attempts to download an app with adult-oriented content, Apple’s App Store forces a pop-up message for the user to confirm s/he is over 17.  Which begs the question as to whether a rating system that is not enforced by the gatekeeper will be effective.

We will keep abreast of developments as the system is deployed by stakeholders in the app landscape.

**  Alison Peyser, an associate with the firm, assisted in preparing this article.