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The Joy of Fishes

Tue, 15 May 2012 22:28:28 +0100

       Playful fish in flora-filled water became a popular subject for Chinese painters when the cultivation of rare fish came into vogue in twelfth century. Because fish (魚, yu) is homophonous with the word for abundance (余, yu), it has become a common symbol for wealth and prosperity. Paintings of fish are often used to illustrate the auspicious expression, “May there be abundance year after year (年年有余).”

      Among the literati, the popularity of fish stems from the Daoist book Zhuangzi, in which Zhuangzi and Huizi debated whether one could know the happiness of fish without being one himself. The story goes like this:

     Zhuangzi and Huizi were crossing the Hao River by the dam.
     Zhuangzi said, "See how free the fishes leap and dart: that is their happiness."
     Huizi replied, "Since you are not a fish, how do you know what makes fishes happy?"
     Zhuangzi said, "Since you are not I, how can you possibly know that I do not know what makes fishes happy?"
     Huizi argued, "If I, not being you, cannot know what you know, it follows that you, not being a fish, cannot know what they know. The argument is complete!"
     Zhuangzi said, "Wait a minute! Let us get back to the original question. What you asked me was 'How do you know what makes fishes happy?' From the terms of your question, you evidently know I know what makes fishes happy.
     "I know the joy of fishes in the river through my own joy, as I go walking along the same river."

Based on translation by Thomas Merton, The Way of Zhuang Tzu, New Directions Books, 1965

Chinese Bronzes

Thu, 02 Feb 2012 07:24:19 +0100

       Bronzes have been cast in China for about 3,700 years. Most bronzes of about 1500–300 BC, roughly the Bronze Age in China, may be described as ritual vessels intended for the worship of ancestors, who are often named in inscriptions on the bronzes. Many were specially cast to commemorate important events in the lives of their possessors. These ritual vessels of ancient China represent possibly the most remarkable achievement in the whole history of metalcraft before modern times.

       In the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), the right to cast or possess these vessels was probably confined to the royal house itself originally but later was bestowed upon local governors set up by the ruler; still later, in the Zhou dynasty (1045–256 BC), the right was claimed by rulers of the feudal states and indeed by anyone who was rich and powerful enough to cast his own vessels. Further, from the arrangement and quantity of bronzes displayed in a given ceremony, one can discern the specific social status and position of that noble host. Bronzes were thus the most important ritual objects in the aristocratic Shang and Zhou.

       In many aspects, these two early dynasties were crucial to the formation of Chinese culture. Politically, with a burgeoning humanistic awareness the rule by theocracy gradually transitioned to that of rituals and proprieties. Materially, the advanced bronze smelting and casting skills initiated a new age of ritual vessels and weaponry; the breakthrough in craftsmanship and technologies gave rise to a wide range of flourishing industries. Spiritually, the two primary affairs of the state, worship and warfare, conveyed via various shapes and patterns of ritual bronzes the awe for and communion with deities as well as ancestors. Last but not least, the bronze inscriptions recorded the ritual occasions these vessels were made for: feast rites, military action, and reward or conferment ceremonies.

       Already by late Zhou times, the more expensive medium of lacquer was often used in place of bronze. Under the ultimate unification of Qin (221–206 BC) and Han (206 BC–AD 220), bronzes gradually yielded its central role in the ritual system but transformed into a cultural archetype, deeply imbued into and manifesting the essence of Chinese thought and culture: extensive and elaborate, profound yet moderate.

The Three Friends of Winter

Thu, 10 Mar 2011 05:48:06 +0100

The three friends of winter refer to the pine (松), bamboo (竹), and plum (梅). The origin of this term is found as early as the Record of the Five-cloud Plum Cottage (五雲梅舍記) from The Clear Mountain Collection (霽山集) of literary writings by Lin Jingxi (林景熙, 1241-1310, a Song dynasty loyalist), “For his residence, earth was piled to form a hill and a hundred plum trees, which along with lofty pines and tall bamboo comprise the friends of winter, were planted (即其居累土為山，種梅百本，與喬松、脩篁為歲寒友).”

Every year, as the season progresses from autumn to winter, the days become progressively colder. While many plants and trees begin to wither away or shed their leaves, the pine, bamboo, and plum seem to do just the opposite with their surprising display of vitality. Indeed, this unique quality drew much attention of the ancient Chinese.

The praise that the Chinese have for the pine, bamboo, and plum derives from the natural ability of these plants to withstand and even flourish in harsh environments. They became symbols that encouraged people to persevere in adversity, providing inspiration through consolation and determination. Consequently, these three became common subjects through the ages in Chinese painting and calligraphy. Because artists bring different experiences and feelings to these subjects, their works show a variety of forms, expressions, and sentiments.

Along the River During the Qingming Festival

Wed, 16 Feb 2011 09:49:23 +0100

Along the River During the Qingming Festival (Up the River During Qingming, Qingming River View, 清明上河圖, pinyin: Qīngmíng Shànghé Tú) is a panoramic painting generally attributed to the Song Dynasty artist Zhang Zeduan (張擇端, 1085–1145). It captures the daily life of people from the Song period at the capital, Bianjing (汴京), today's Kaifeng (開封) in Henan (河南). The theme celebrates the festive spirit and prosperous street scene at the Qingming Festival, rather than the holiday's ceremonial aspects, such as tomb sweeping and prayers. The entire piece was painted in hand scroll format and the content reveals the lifestyle of all levels of society from rich to poor as well as different economic activities in rural areas and the city. It offers glimpses of period clothing and architecture. As an artistic creation, the piece has been revered and court artists of subsequent dynasties have made many re-interpretive replicas. Read more and view the entire handscroll at this page.

Chinese Fans

Tue, 08 Feb 2011 20:24:58 +0100

A hand-held fan is a rigid or folding device used throughout the world since ancient times for cooling, air circulation, or ceremony and as a sartorial accessory. The Chinese character for "fan" (扇) is etymologically derived from a picture of feathers under a roof.

       The rigid fan has a handle or stick with a rigid leaf, or mount. The folding fan is composed of sticks (the outer two called guards) held together at the handle end by a rivet or pin. On the sticks is mounted a leaf that is pleated so that the fan may be opened or closed. (Fan Gallery)

       The fan has played an important part in Chinese and Japanese life. Fans were carried by men as well as women, and there were many classes of fans, each reserved for some special purpose. With so much significance attached to the fan in the Far East, a great deal of attention was paid to its decoration, and the exquisite taste displayed in the embellishment of high-quality Chinese and Japanese fans has never really been equaled. In Europe the painting of fan leaves was, until the 19th century, the work of artisans – clever decorators at best. In China, on the other hand, many of the great painters devoted their talents to the decoration of fans, and the resulting works of art were not always mounted for actual use.

       The rigid fan was apparently the more common type in China up to the end of the Song Dynasty (960-1279), but during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) the folding fan seems to have come into fashion. The folding fan was invented in the Far East (by the Japanese in the 7th century CE, it is sometimes claimed), and it is possible that a few examples of such Eastern folding fans reached Europe during the Middle Ages. The Portuguese traders who opened up the sea route to China in the 15th century, however, were probably the first to bring Oriental fans to Europe in any quantity, and thereafter the importation of these curios increased. By the end of the 17th century enormous consignments of Chinese and, to a lesser extent, Japanese fans were reaching Europe. These were mostly of rather poor quality by Oriental standards, for they were made for the less discriminating European market, but the intricacy and skill with which even they were fashioned caught the imagination of Europeans, who bought them eagerly.

Chinese Ceramics

Wed, 17 Nov 2010 11:18:09 +0100

       Chinese ceramic ware is an artform that has been developing since the dynastic periods. The first types of ceramics were made about ten to eleven thousand years ago. Chinese ceramics range from construction materials such as bricks and tiles, to hand-built pottery vessels fired in bonfires or kilns (窑), to the sophisticated porcelain wares made for the imperial court.

       There are two primary categories of Chinese ceramics, low-temperature-fired pottery or táo (陶, about 950-1200℃) and high-temperature-fired porcelain or cí (瓷, about 1250-1400 ℃). The history of Chinese ceramics began some eight thousand years ago with the crafting of hand-molded earthenware vessels. Soon after, in the late neolithic period, the potter's wheel was invented facilitating the production of more uniform vessels. The sophistication of these early Chinese potters is best exemplified by the legion of terracotta warriors found in the tomb of the First Qin Emperor (r. 221-210 BC).

       Over the following centuries innumerable new ceramic technologies and styles were developed. One of the most famous is the three-colored ware of the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), named after the bright yellow, green and white glazes which were applied to the earthenware body. They were made not only in such traditional forms as bowls and vases, but also in the more exotic guises of camels and Central Asian travelers, testifying to the cultural influence of the Silk Road. Another type of ware to gain the favor of the Tang court were the qingci (青瓷), known in the West as celadon. These have a subtle bluish-green glaze and are characterized by their simple and elegant shapes. They were so popular that production continued at various kiln centers throughout China well into the succeeding dynasties, and were shipped to Korea, Japan, Southeast Asia, and as far as Egypt.

       Blue and white porcelain was first produced under the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368 AD). Baked at a high temperature, porcelain is characterized by the purity of its kaolin clay body. Potters of the subsequent Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) perfected these blue and white wares so that they soon came to represent the virtuosity of the Chinese potter. Jingdezhen (景德镇), in Jiangxi Province, became the center of a porcelain industry that not only produced vast quantities of imperial wares, but also exported products as far afield as Turkey. While styles of decorative motif and vessel shape changed with the ascension to the throne of each new Ming emperor, the quality of Ming blue and whites are indisputably superior to that of any other time period.

During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), porcelain was enriched with the innovation of five-colored wares. Applying a variety of under-glaze pigments to decorative schemes of flower, landscape and figurative scenes, these wares have gained greatest renown in the West. In almost every major European museum, you will find either a five-colored ware or a monochromatic ware (in blue, red, yellow or pink) from this period.

The quality of Chinese porcelain began to decline from the end of the Qing Dynasty as political instability took its inevitable toll on the arts. However, the production of porcelain is being revived as Chinese culture gains greater recognition both at home and abroad. In addition to modern interpretations, numerous kiln centers have been established to reproduce the more traditional styles.

The Yan Style - Yan Zhenqing

Mon, 26 Jul 2010 03:46:31 +0100

Yan Zhenqing (颜真卿, 709–785) was a leading Chinese calligrapher and a loyal governor of the Tang Dynasty. His artistic accomplishment in Chinese calligraphy parallels the greatest master calligraphers throughout the history. His “Yan style” of the Regular Script is the textbook-style that most calligraphy beginners imitate today. The “Yan style”, which brought Chinese calligraphy to a new realm, emphasizes on strength, boldness and grandness. Like most of the master calligraphers, Yan Zhenqing learned his skill from various calligraphers. The development of his personal style can be basically divided into three stages:

Early Period
Yan Zhenqing’s early stage lasted until his 50s. During these years, Yan Zhenqing tried out different techniques and started to develop his personal genre. When he was young, he studied calligraphy under the famous calligraphers Zhang Xu and Chu Suiliang. Zhang Xu was particularly skilled in the Cursive Script, which emphasizes the overall composition and flow; Chu Suiliang, on the other hand, was renowned for his graceful and refined Regular Script. Yan Zhenqing also drew inspiration from Wei Bei (魏碑) Style, which originated from Northern nomad minorities and focused on strength and simplicity.

In 752, he wrote one of his best-known pieces, Duobao Pagoda Stele (多寶塔碑). The stele has 34 lines, each containing 66 characters, and it was written for Emperor Xuanzong who was extremely pious to Buddhism at the moment. The style of the writing was close to that of the early Tang calligraphers, who emphasized elegance and "fancifulness"; yet it also pursues composure and firmness in the stroke of the brush, structuring characters on powerful frames with tender management on brushline.

Consolidating Period
This period ranges from Yan Zhenqing’s fifties to sixty-five. During these years, he wrote some famous pieces like Guojia Miao Stele (郭傢廟碑) and Magu Shan Xiantan Ji (痲姑山仙墰記). For individual strokes, he adopted the rule of “thin horizontal and thick vertical strokes”. Strokes’ widths were varied to show the curvature and flow, and the dots and oblique strokes were finished with sharp edges. For character structure, Yan style displays squared shape and modest arrangement, with spacious center portion and tight outer strokes. The emerging Yan style is very muscular, rich and controlled.

Consummating Period
In the last ten years of his life, Yan Zhenqing’s calligraphy accomplishment peaked. With established style, he continuously improved on each of his works, and completed his Magnum Opus, Yan Qingli Stele (顏勤禮碑). At this stage, he was able to fully exhibit his style at his will even through a single stroke, and under his modest and stately style bubbles the liveness and passion.

Late Life
In 764, Emperor Daizong conferred the title of Duke of Lu (魯公) on Yan Zhenqing in recognition of his firm loyalty to the government and bravery during the An Lushan Rebellion. However, his unbendable character was resented by the incumbent Grand Councilor, Lu Qi (盧杞), and cost him his life.

In 784, the military commissioner of Huaixi (淮西節度使), Li Xilie (李希烈), rebelled. Lu Qi had held a grudge against Yan Zhenqing for a long time, so he sent Yan to negotiate with Li Xilie in the hope that Yan would be killed. As expected, Li Xilie tried all means to coax or threaten Yan to surrender, but Yan Zhenqing never wavered. According to the legend, Li Xilie set up a fire in the courtyard and told Yan that he would be burnt to death if not surrendering. Yet Yan Zhenqing did not show the slightest fear and walked towards the fire determinedly. Li Xilie could not help but to show respect to him. In 785, however, Yan Zhenqing was secretly strangled in Longxing Temple (龍興寺) in Caizhou, Henan.

Upon hearing his death, Emperor Daizong closed the assembly for five days and conferred the posthumous title Wenzhong (文忠) on Yan Zhenqing. He was also widely mourned by the army and the people. A temple was constructed to commemorate Yan. In the Song Dynasty, the temple was moved to Shandong and henceforth became a famous tourist attraction.

The Sage of Calligraphy - Wang Xizhi

Mon, 26 Jul 2010 03:50:17 +0100

Wang Xizhi (王羲之, 303 - 361) was a Chinese calligrapher, traditionally referred to as the Sage of Calligraphy (書聖, 书圣).

Born in Linyi (临沂), Shandong (山东) Province, he spent most of his life in the present-day Shaoxing (绍兴), Zhejiang (浙江). He learned the art of calligraphy from Wei Shuo, commonly addressed as Lady Wei (衛夫人). He excelled in every script but particularly in the semi-cursive script (行书). Unfortunately, none of his original works remains today. All of his masterpieces which you see were copied or traced by others. However, these works are still considered extremely valuable, due to his achievement in Chinese calligraphy.

His most famous work is the Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion (兰亭集序), the preface of a collection of poems written by a number of poets when gathering at Lanting near the town of Shaoxing for the Spring Purification Festival. The original is lost, but there are a number of fine tracing copies and rubbings.

Wang Xizhi is particularly remembered for one of his hobbies – rearing geese. Legend has it that he learned the key of how to turn his wrist while writing by observing how the geese move their necks. There is a very pretty small porcelain cup depicting Wang Xizhi "walking geese" in the China Gallery of the Asian Civilisations Museum in Singapore. The other side of the cup depicts a scholar "taking a zither to a friend".

Wang Xizhi had seven children, all of whom were notable calligraphers. The most distinguished one was his youngest son, Wang Xianzhi (王献之). They are commonly referred to as the “Two Wangs.”

The Song Dynasty Confucian Scholar - Zhu Xi

Tue, 23 Jun 2009 06:26:28 +0100

Zhu Xi (朱熹, 1130 - 1200) was a Song Dynasty (960-1279) Confucian scholar who became the leading figure of the School of Principle and the most influential rationalist Neo-Confucian in China. His contribution to Chinese philosophy included his assigning special significance to the Four Books (四书) [the Analects of Confucius (论语), the Mencius (孟子), the Great Learning (大学), and the Doctrine of the Mean (中庸)], his emphasis on the investigation of things (格物), and the synthesis of all fundamental Confucian concepts.

Zhu Xi’s philosophy emphasized logic, consistency, and the conscientious observance of classical authority, especially that of Confucius and his follower Mencius. Zhu Xi held that the cosmos has two aspects: the indeterminate and the determinate. The indeterminate, or li (理), is natural law and determines the patterns of all created things. This law combines with the vital psychophysical qi (气) to produce phenomena having form. In human beings the li, manifested as human nature (性), is essentially perfect, and defects—including vices—are introduced into the body and mind through impurities of qi, or energy. Human beings may eliminate their mental imperfections through study of ethics and metaphysics.

The calligraphy of Zhu Xi had been acclaimed as acquiring the style of the Han and Wei Dynasties. He was skillful in the central tip, and his brush strokes are smooth, round and steady. The movements of his strokes flow without any trace of abruptness. Indeed, his calligraphy possesses stability and elegance in construction with a continuous flow of energy. Without trying to be pretentious or intentional, his written characters are well-balanced, natural and unconventional. As he was a patriarch of Confucianism philosophy, it is understandable that his learning permeated in all his writings with due respect for traditional standards. He maintained that while rules had to be observed for each word, there should be room for tolerance, multiplicity and naturalness. In other words, calligraphy had to observe rules and at the same time not be bound by them so as to express the quality of naturalness. His calligraphy had been highly esteemed throughout Chinese history.

Pan of the South and Li of the North

Fri, 12 Jun 2009 07:38:00 +0100

The phrase “Pan of the south and Li of the north (南潘北李)” was coined in recognition of two contemporary painters, Pan Tianshou (潘天寿) and Li Kuchan (李苦禅).

Pan Tianshou began his career teaching Chinese painting in 1923, when he moved to Shanghai to accept an assignment. In that same year, he met the 80-year-old master of the Shanghai School (海派), Wu Changshuo (吴昌硕), and the two painters became intimate friends. (Read more...)

Li Kuchan was born in Gaotang County (高唐县), Shandong Province (山东省). Coming from a poor peasant family, Li took up hard labour to earn his way through art school in Beijing. He also studied with Xu Beihong (徐悲鸿) and Qi Baishi (齐白石); the latter considered Li his best student. (Read more...)