DREAMS.........

Dream Truck - Volvo 'Vision 2020' concept truck

2011-03-03T00:33:00.000+05:30

Out of the darkness you see it. Illuminated by high intensity headlights and a strangely familiar neon-lit grille motif. Beneath the towering yet slender cab the engine hums like a German washing machine, quiet, purposeful….

Pressing the keyfob again you hear a gentle hiss as the driver’s door pops open and slides back while an open plan staircase of steps slides out of the lower front valance allowing you to climb into the interior of this strange truck. And that cool interior is softly-lit like some expensive, yet understated cocktail bar…but what manner is this strange beast? And from whence did it come?

Seated in the figure hugging pre-programmed memory seat you reach out to the touch sensitive dashboard and select the instruments you want displayed during your journey…but to where and with what?

Soon you’ve made your way to one of the many designated Trans-European ‘Green Freight Corridors’ where you’re soon joined by other Vision 2020 trucks…and naturally using your integrated guidance system and adaptive cruise control with automated distance sensing it’s not long before you’re running in a convoy of Vision 2020 roadtrains…

At a steady 56km/h the miles just fly by, and the view from your Vision 2020 cab is outstanding….and all you can hear is the steady swoosh, swoosh, swoosh as your trundle along the road…

And those dashboard instruments are telling you everything is fine–in fact you don’t see them until you need them and as the Green Corridor convoy guidance systems locks in there’s even time for you to…

Stretch out, take your hands off the wheel and your feet off the pedals, lean back and relax….can it really be happening? Yes it is! And you’re safe in the knowledge that the automatic guidance system has it all covered…

Source:-http://psipunk.com/volvo-vision-2020-concept-truck/

Most Expensive Water Fountain In The World

2011-02-28T02:53:00.000+05:30

The Fountain itself is set in Burj Dubai Lake in the Downtown Burj Dubai development project which also includes the supertall skyscraper Burj Dubai and the Dubai Mall. Dubai Fountain is over 900 feet long and can spray jets up to 500 feet high. The fountain can spray as much as 22,000 gallons of water in the air at any given time, which can be visually enhanced by 6,600 WET superlights and 25 color projectors. The fountain can be set to music, including the Swahili song Baba Yetu from the popular video game Civilization IV and top Arab dance song Shik Shak Shok.
The Dubai Fountain cost $217 million to build.

HAARP (High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program)

2011-02-19T01:45:00.000+05:30

The High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP) is an ionospheric research program jointly funded by the US Air Force, the US Navy, the University of Alaska and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).[1] Its purpose is to analyze the ionosphere and investigate the potential for developing ionospheric enhancement technology for radio communications and surveillance purposes (such as missile detection).[2] The HAARP program operates a major Arctic facility, known as the HAARP Research Station, on an Air Force owned site near Gakona, Alaska.

The most prominent instrument at the HAARP Station is the Ionospheric Research Instrument (IRI), a high power radio frequency transmitter facility operating in the high frequency (HF) band. The IRI is used to temporarily excite a limited area of the ionosphere. Other instruments, such as a VHF and a UHF radar, a fluxgate magnetometer, a digisonde and an induction magnetometer, are used to study the physical processes that occur in the excited region.

Work on the HAARP Station began in 1993. The current working IRI was completed in 2007, and its prime contractor was BAE Advanced Technologies.[1]

As of 2008, HAARP had incurred around $250 million in tax-funded construction and operating costs. HAARP has also been blamed by conspiracy theorists for a range of events, including numerous natural disasters

Objectives

The HAARP project aims to direct a 3.6 MW signal, in the 2.8–10 MHz region of the HF [High Frequency] band, into the ionosphere. The signal may be pulsed or continuous. Then, effects of the transmission and any recovery period can be examined using associated instrumentation, including VHF and UHF radars, HF receivers, and optical cameras. According to the HAARP team, this will advance the study of basic natural processes that occur in the ionosphere under the natural but much stronger influence of solar interaction, as well as how the natural ionosphere affects radio signals.

This will enable scientists to develop techniques to mitigate these effects in order to improve the reliability and/or performance of communication and navigation systems, which would have a wide range of applications in both the civilian and military sectors, such as an increased accuracy of GPS navigation, and advancements in underwater and underground research and applications. This may lead to improved methods for submarine communication and the ability to remotely sense the mineral content of the terrestrial subsurface, among other things. One application would be to map out the underground complexes of countries such as Iran and North Korea. The current facility lacks the range to reach these countries, but the research could be used to develop a mobile platform.[4]

The HAARP program began in 1990. The project is funded by the Office of Naval Research and jointly managed by the ONR and Air Force Research Laboratory, with the principal involvement of the University of Alaska. Many other universities and educational institutions have been involved in the development of the project and its instruments, namely the University of Alaska (Fairbanks), Stanford University, Penn State University (ARL), Boston College, UCLA, Clemson University, Dartmouth College, Cornell University, Johns Hopkins University, University of Maryland, College Park, University of Massachusetts, MIT, Polytechnic Institute of New York University, and the University of Tulsa. The project's specifications were developed by the universities, which are continuing to play a major role in the design of future research efforts.

According to HAARP's management, the project strives for openness and all activities are logged and publicly available. Scientists without security clearances, even foreign nationals, are routinely allowed on site. The HAARP facility regularly (once a year on most years according to the HAARP home page) hosts open houses, during which time any civilian may tour the entire facility. In addition, scientific results obtained with HAARP are routinely published in major research journals (such as Geophysical Research Letters, or Journal of Geophysical Research), written both by university scientists (American and foreign) or by US Department of Defense research lab scientists. Each summer, the HAARP holds a summer-school for visiting students, including foreign nationals, giving them an opportunity to do research with one of the world's foremost research instruments.

Research

HAARP's main goal is basic science research of the uppermost portion of the atmosphere, known as the ionosphere. Essentially a transition between the atmosphere and the magnetosphere, the ionosphere is where the atmosphere is thin enough that the sun's x-rays and UV rays can reach it, but thick enough that there are still enough molecules present to absorb those rays. Consequently, the ionosphere consists of a rapid increase in density of free electrons, beginning at ~70 km, reaching a peak at ~300 km, and then falling off again as the atmosphere disappears entirely by ~1000 km. Various aspects of HAARP can study all of the main layers of the ionosphere.

The profile of the ionosphere, however, is highly variable, showing minute-to-minute changes, daily changes, seasonal changes, and year-to-year changes. This becomes particularly complicated near the Earth's poles, where a host of physical processes (like auroral lights) are unlocked by the fact that the alignment of the Earth's magnetic field is nearly vertical.

On the other hand, the ionosphere is traditionally very difficult to measure. Balloons cannot reach it because the air is too thin, but satellites cannot orbit there because the air is still too thick. Hence, most experiments on the ionosphere give only small pieces of information. HAARP approaches the study of the ionosphere by following in the footsteps of an ionospheric heater called EISCAT near Tromsø, Norway. There, scientists pioneered exploration of the ionosphere by perturbing it with radio waves in the 2–10 MHz range, and studying how the ionosphere reacts. HAARP performs the same functions but with more power, and a more flexible and agile HF beam.

Some of the main scientific findings from HAARP include:

1. Generation of very low frequency radio waves by modulated heating of the auroral electrojet, useful because generating VLF waves ordinarily requires gigantic antennas
2. Production of weak luminous glow (below what can be seen with the naked eye, but measurable) from absorption of HAARP's signal
3. Production of extremely low frequency waves in the 0.1 Hz range. These are next to impossible to produce any other way, because the length of a transmit antenna is dictated by the wavelenth of the signal it is designed to produce.
4. Generation of whistler-mode VLF signals which enter the magnetosphere, and propagate to the other hemisphere, interacting with Van Allen radiation belt particles along the way
5. VLF remote sensing of the heated ionosphere

Research at the HAARP includes:

1. Ionospheric super heating
2. plasma line observations
3. Stimulated electron emission observations
4. Gyro frequency heating research
5. Spread F observations
6. High velocity trace runs
7. Airglow observations
8. Heating induced scintillation observations
9. VLF and ELF generation observations [5]
10. Radio observations of meteors
11. Polar mesospheric summer echoes: PMSE have been studied using the IRI as a powerful radar, as well as with the 28 MHz radar, and the two VHF radars at 49 MHz and 139 MHz. The presence of multiple radars spanning both HF and VHF bands allows scientists to make comparative measurements that may someday lead to an understanding of the processes that form these elusive phenomena.
12. Research on extraterrestrial HF radar echos: the Lunar Echo experiment (2008).[6][7]
13. Testing of Spread Spectrum Transmitters (2009)
14. Meteor shower impacts on the ionosphere
15. Response and recovery of the ionosphere from solar flares and geomagnetic storms
16. The effect of ionospheric disturbances on GPS satellite signal quality

Instrumentation and operation

The main instrument at HAARP Station is the Ionospheric Research Instrument (IRI). This is a high power, high-frequency phased array radio transmitter with a set of 180 antennas, disposed in an array of 12x15 units that occupy a rectangle of about 33 acres (13 hectares). The IRI is used to temporarily energize a small portion of the ionosphere. The study of these disturbed volumes yields important information for understanding natural ionospheric processes.

During active ionospheric research, the signal generated by the transmitter system is delivered to the antenna array and transmitted in an upward direction. At an altitude between 70 km (43 mi) to 350 km (217 mi) (depending on operating frequency), the signal is partially absorbed in a small volume several tens of kilometers in diameter and a few meters thick over the IRI. The intensity of the HF signal in the ionosphere is less than 3 µW/cm², tens of thousands of times less than the Sun's natural electromagnetic radiation reaching the earth and hundreds of times less than even the normal random variations in intensity of the Sun's natural ultraviolet (UV) energy which creates the ionosphere. The small effects that are produced, however, can be observed with the sensitive scientific instruments installed at the HAARP Station, and these observations can provide information about the dynamics of plasmas and insight into the processes of solar-terrestrial interactions.[8]

Each antenna element consists of a crossed dipole that can be polarized for linear, ordinary mode (O-mode), or extraordinary mode (X-mode) transmission and reception.[9][10] Each part of the two section crossed dipoles are individually fed from a custom built transmitter, that has been specially designed with very low distortion. The Effective Radiated Power (ERP) of the IRI is limited by more than a factor of 10 at its lower operating frequencies. Much of this is due to higher antenna losses and a less efficient antenna pattern.

The IRI can transmit between 2.7 and 10 MHz, a frequency range that lies above the AM radio broadcast band and well below Citizens' Band frequency allocations. The HAARP Station is licensed to transmit only in certain segments of this frequency range, however. When the IRI is transmitting, the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is 100 kHz or less. The IRI can transmit in continuous waves (CW) or in pulses as short as 10 microseconds (µs). CW transmission is generally used for ionospheric modification, while transmission in short pulses frequently repeated is used as a radar system. Researchers can run experiments that use both modes of transmission, first modifying the ionosphere for a predetermined amount of time, then measuring the decay of modification effects with pulsed transmissions.

There are other geophysical instruments for research at the Station. Some of them are:

* A fluxgate magnetometer built by the University of Alaska Fairbanks Geophysical Institute, available to chart variations in the Earth's magnetic field. Rapid and sharp changes of it may indicate a geomagnetic storm.
* A digisonde that provides ionospheric profiles, allowing scientists to choose appropriate frequencies for IRI operation. The HAARP makes current and historic digisonde information available online.
* An induction magnetometer, provided by the University of Tokyo, that measures the changing geomagnetic field in the Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) range of 0–5 Hz.

Site

The project site (62°23′30″N 145°09′03″W / 62.39167°N 145.15083°W / 62.39167; -145.15083) is north of Gakona, Alaska just west of Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park. An environmental impact statement led to permission for an array of up to 180 antennas to be erected.[11] The HAARP has been constructed at the previous site of an over-the-horizon radar (OTH) installation. A large structure, built to house the OTH now houses the HAARP control room, kitchen, and offices. Several other small structures house various instruments.

The HAARP site has been constructed in three distinct phases: [12]

1. The Developmental Prototype (DP) had 18 antenna elements, organized in three columns by six rows. It was fed with a total of 360 kilowatts (kW) combined transmitter output power. The DP transmitted just enough power for the most basic of ionospheric testing.
2. The Filled Developmental Prototype (FDP) had 48 antenna units arrayed in six columns by eight rows, with 960 kW of transmitter power. It was fairly comparable to other ionospheric heating facilities. This was used for a number of successful scientific experiments and ionospheric exploration campaigns over the years.
3. The Final IRI (FIRI) is the final build of the IRI. It has 180 antenna units, organized in 15 columns by 12 rows, yielding a theoretical maximum gain of 31 dB. A total of 3.6 MW of transmitter power will feed it, but the power is focused in the upward direction by the geometry of the large phased array of antennas which allow the antennas to work together in controlling the direction. As of March 2007[update], all the antennas were in place, the final phase was completed and the antenna array was undergoing testing aimed at fine-tuning its performance to comply with safety requirements required by regulatory agencies. The facility officially began full operations in its final 3.6 MW transmitter power completed status in the summer of 2007, yielding an effective radiated power (ERP) of 5.1 Gigawatts or 97.1 dBW at maximum output. However, the site typically operates at a fraction of that value due to the lower antenna gain exhibited at standard operational frequencies.[13]

Related facilities

In America, there are two related ionospheric heating facilities: the HIPAS, near Fairbanks, Alaska, and (currently offline for reconstruction) one at the Arecibo Observatory Link text in Puerto Rico. The European Incoherent Scatter Scientific Association (EISCAT) operates an ionospheric heating facility, capable of transmitting over 1 GW effective radiated power (ERP), near Tromsø, Norway.[14] Russia has the Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility, in Vasilsursk near Nizhniy Novgorod, capable of transmitting 190 MW ERP.

Conspiracy theories

HAARP is the subject of numerous conspiracy theories, with individuals ascribing various hidden motives and capabilities to the project. Journalist Sharon Weinberger called HAARP "the Moby Dick of conspiracy theories" and said the popularity of conspiracy theories often overshadows the benefits HAARP may provide to the scientific community.[3][15] Skeptic computer scientist David Naiditch called HAARP "a magnet for conspiracy theorists", saying the project has been blamed for triggering catastrophes such as floods, droughts, hurricanes, thunderstorms, and devastating earthquakes in Pakistan and the Philippines aimed to "shake up" terrorists. Naiditch says HAARP has been blamed for diverse events including major power outages, the downing of TWA Flight 800, Gulf War syndrome, and chronic fatigue syndrome. Conspiracy theorists have also suggested links between HAARP and the work of Nikola Tesla (particularly potential combinations of HAARP energy with Tesla's work on pneumatic small-scale earthquake generation) and physicist Bernard Eastlund. According to Naiditch, HAARP is an attractive target for conspiracy theorists because "its purpose seems deeply mysterious to the scientifically uninformed".[16] Conspiracy theorists have linked HAARP to numerous earthquakes. An opinion piece on a Venezuelan state-run television channel's website named HAARP as a cause of the 2010 Haiti earthquake.

Source:- Wikipedia / Youtube

Anunaki

2011-02-17T19:50:00.000+05:30

The Anunnaki (also transcribed as: Anunna, Anunnaku, Ananaki and other variations) are a group of Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian and Babylonian deities. The name is variously written "^da-nuna", "^da-nuna-ke₄-ne", or "^da-nun-na", meaning something to the effect of 'those of royal blood'^[1] or 'princely offspring'.^[2] Their relation to the group of gods known as the Igigi is unclear - at times the names are used synonymously but in the Atra-Hasis flood myth they have to work for the Anunnaki, rebelling after 40 days and replaced by the creation of humans.^[3]
Jeremy Black and Anthony Green offer a slightly different perspective on the Igigi and the Anunnaki, writing that "lgigu or Igigi is a term introduced in the Old Babylonian Period as a name for the (ten) 'great gods'. While it sometimes kept that sense in later periods, from Middle Babylonian times on it is generally used to refer to the gods of heaven collectively, just as the term Anunnakku (Anuna) was later used to refer to the gods of the underworld. In the Epic of Creation, it is said that there are 300 lgigu of heaven.".^[4]
The Anunnaki appear in the Babylonian creation myth, Enuma Elish. In the late version magnifying Marduk, after the creation of mankind, Marduk divides the Anunnaki and assigns them to their proper stations, three hundred in heaven, three hundred on the earth. In gratitude, the Anunnaki, the "Great Gods", built Esagila, the splendid: "They raised high the head of Esagila equaling Apsu. Having built a stage-tower as high as Apsu, they set up in it an abode for Marduk, Enlil, Ea." Then they built their own shrines.
According to later Babylonian myth, the Anunnaki were the children of Anu and Ki, brother and sister gods, themselves the children of Anshar and Kishar (Skypivot and Earthpivot, the Celestial poles), who in turn were the children of Lahamu and Lahmu ("the muddy ones"), names given to the gatekeepers of the Abzu temple at Eridu, the site at which the creation was thought to have occurred. Finally, Lahamu and Lahmu were the children of Tiamat (Goddess of the Ocean) and Abzu (God of Fresh Water).

Source:- Wikipedia / Youtube

Bosnian Pyramids

2011-02-17T19:38:00.000+05:30

The term Bosnian pyramids has been used for a cluster of natural geological formations sometimes known as flatirons near the Bosnia and Herzegovina town of Visoko, northwest of Sarajevo, including Visočica hill , which became the focus of international attention in October 2005 following a news-media campaign promoting the false idea that they are human-made and the largest ancient pyramids on Earth.

Scientific investigations of the site show that there is no pyramid there. Additionally, scientists have criticised the Bosnian authorities for supporting the pyramid claim saying, "This scheme is a cruel hoax on an unsuspecting public and has no place in the world of genuine science."

The 213-metre (699 ft) Visočica hill, upon which the Old town of Visoki was once sited, is roughly pyramid-shaped. The idea that it constitutes an ancient artificial edifice was publicised by Bosnian author and metalworker Semir Osmanagić who currently is based in Houston, Texas, United States. His subsequent excavations at the site have uncovered what he claims to be a paved entrance plateau and tunnels, as well as stone blocks and ancient mortar which he has suggested once covered the structure. Osmanagić has claimed that the dig involved an international team of archaeologists from Australia, Austria, Ireland, Scotland and Slovenia.However, many archaeologists he named have stated they had not agreed to participate and were never at the site. The dig began in April 2006, and has involved reshaping the hill to make it look like a Mayan step pyramid.

Osmanagić's interpretation

Osmanagić has named Visočica hill the "Pyramid of the Sun", and two nearby hills, identified from satellite and aerial photography, the "Pyramid of the Moon" and the "Pyramid of the (Bosnian) Dragon" (and another two, one named the "Pyramid of the Earth", have been mentioned in reports). Newspaper reports have quoted Osmanagić as claiming that they were constructed by ancient Illyrian inhabitants of the Balkans as early as 12,000 BC. But in an interview with Philip Coppens in Nexus (April-May 2006), Osmanagić attempted to clarify his previous statements, stating he was misquoted: he does claim that they were most likely constructed by the Illyrians, who he claims lived in the area from 12,000 BC to 500 BC, and that the pyramid was therefore most likely constructed between those two dates - not in 12,000 BC.

Osmanagić claims the excavation has produced evidence of building blocks as well as tunnels. Additionally Osmanagić claims to have found tunnels in the hillside which he interprets as ventilation shafts.

Osmanagić believes his discoveries around Visoko will have further implications for world prehistory. By comparing the varying heights of the tallest pyramids in Mexico and Egypt with Visočica hill, he concluded that the pyramids were all built by the same people, with the Bosnian Pyramid being the last to be built. However, upon further thought he has decided that this dating mechanism may not be reliable and has now announced Visočica hill could be "The mother of all Pyramids", a claim he says would be corroborated by the existence of sacred geometry and further numerological study of messages left in the pyramid for future generations.

Osmanagić estimates that the Sun pyramid stands 722 feet (220 m) high (or, depending upon the report, either 230 feet (70 m) high or 328 feet (100 m) high). If it is 722 feet, it would be one third taller than the Great Pyramid of Giza, making it the largest pyramidal structure on Earth.

The current target of the project is to complete excavation by 2012.This is in order to "break a cloud of negative energy, allowing the Earth to receive cosmic energy from the centre of the galaxy" according to Osmanagić, who also hopes that it will be listed as UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Scientific explanations

Osmanagić's claims, widely reported in the mass media, have been challenged by a number of experts, who have accused him of promoting pseudo-scientific notions and damaging archaeological sites with his excavations. Amar Karapus, a curator at the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo, said "When I first read about the pyramids I thought it was a very funny joke. I just couldn't believe that anyone in the world could believe this." Penn State University Professor Garrett Fagan is quoted as saying "They should not be allowed to destroy genuine sites in the pursuit of these delusions[...] It’s as if someone were given permission to bulldoze Stonehenge to find secret chambers of lost ancient wisdom underneath."

Boston University's Curtis Runnels, an expert in prehistoric Greece and the Balkans states that, "Between 27,000 and 12,000 years ago, the Balkans were locked in the last Glacial maximum, a period of very cold and dry climate with glaciers in some of the mountain ranges. The only occupants were Upper Paleolithic hunters and gatherers who left behind open-air camp sites and traces of occupation in caves. These remains consist of simple stone tools, hearths, and remains of animals and plants that were consumed for food. These people did not have the tools or skills to engage in the construction of monumental architecture."

Enver Imamović of the University of Sarajevo, a former director of the National Museum of Sarajevo, concerned that the excavations will damage historic sites such as the medieval royal capital Visoki, said that the excavations would "irreversibly destroy a national treasure". Excavations by archaeologists not related to the Foundation in the summer of 2008 uncovered medieval artefacts and led to renewed calls for the government to cancel Osmanagić's digging permits.

In a letter to the editor of The Times on 25 April 2006, Professor Anthony Harding, president of the European Association of Archaeologists, referred to Osmanagić's theories as "wacky" and "absurd" and expressed concern that insufficient safeguards were in place to protect Bosnia's "rich heritage" from "looting and unmonitored or unauthorised development". After visiting the site himself, Harding reported, "we saw areas of natural stone (a breccia), with fissures and cracks; but no sign of anything that looked like archaeology."

On 8 May 2006, members of the Geological team investigating Visočica on behalf of the Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation held a press conference in Tuzla to present the results of their research. The academics, from the Faculty of Mining and Geology at the University of Tuzla and led by Professor Dr. Vrabac, concluded that the hill is a natural geological formation, made of clastic sediments of layered composition and varying thickness, and that its shape is a consequence of endodynamical and exodynamical processes in the post-Miocene era.

According to Professor Vrabac, who specializes in paleogeology, there are dozens of similar morphological formations in the Sarajevo-Zenica mining basin alone. The Geological team report on Visocica, based on the data collected in six drill holes at 3 to 17 metre depths, is supported by the Research and Teaching Council of the Faculty of Mining and Geology, as well as the Association of Geologists of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

In June 2006, Zahi Hawass's name became linked to the excavations as recommending a supposed expert, Aly Abd Alla Barakat, to investigate the hills. Upon being contacted Hawass denied any involvement, accusing Osmanagić of "giving out false information", and clarifying that Barakat "knows nothing about Egyptian pyramids".

The Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation has said that Barakat inspected the hills and stated, "My opinion is that this is a type of pyramid, probably a primitive pyramid." In November 2007 an English version of a 2006 report by Barakat was posted on the foundation site. Osmanagić also invited geologist and alternative archaeologist Robert Schoch to visit the site. In a preliminary report he concluded that there were natural geological explanations for all the features claimed to be artificial by Osmanagić. In the case of the tunnels he further added:

The much-touted “ancient inscriptions” seem not to be ancient at all. I was told by a reliable source that the inscriptions were not there when members of the “pyramid team” initially entered the tunnels less than two years ago. The “ancient inscriptions” had been added since, perhaps non-maliciously, or perhaps as a downright hoax.

Schoch's website documents "extreme damage being done by the way the excavations are being performed," and accuses Osmanagić of launching "a deliberate smear campaign."

Buick Business Concept

2009-06-21T19:57:00.000+05:30

Unveiled at the 2009 Shanghai Motor Show, the Buick Business Concept is a MPV concept vehicle designed to showcase Buick’s future vision of “business class on the road” and targeted to the Chinese market.

The multi-purpose vehicle (MPV) was developed in China by the Pan Asia Technical Automotive Center (PATAC), a design and engineering joint venture between General Motors and Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation (SAIC), with global design input.

"The Business Concept Vehicle captures the essence of the Buick form language, with its taut surfaces, double sweep spear belt line, strong front and rear identities and dynamic presence."
Buick Business Concept Design Sketch Buick Business Concept Rendering

“The Business Concept Vehicle has a grand presence and makes a strong statement when it pulls up to the front of any establishment,” said Ed Welburn, GM Vice President of Global Design.

Buick Business Concept“The Chinese market and business person have some unique requirements. Our team has responded with an elegant solution to their business and personal needs.”

According to Cao Min, PATAC Concept Car Chief Designer, the design team set out to create a modern global design for Buick, yet include a subtle Chinese essence and influence.

To achieve this balance, they sought to draw from their heritage outside the automotive industry – from classic shapes to arts and ancient relics.

The Business Concept Vehicle’s dynamic exterior surfaces and “yin and yang” interior tones are drawn from diverse inspirations including the 2008 Buick Riviera concept car, Chinese artifacts and modern electronic icons.
Buick Business Concept Interior Buick Business Concept Interior
Exterior Design

To establish their design direction, PATAC designers took the global Buick design vocabulary of sculptural and dynamic forms established by the Riviera concept car and extended it to a tall, one-box architecture.
Buick Business Concept Design Sketch Buick Business Concept Design Sketch
The Business Concept Vehicle develops the Buick form language further and incorporates elements of Chinese culture and artistic influences into the details.

Buick Business Concept Grille Design SketchThe famous Buick waterfall grille takes on a bolder treatment. Intricate detailing gives it an even more prominent look.

The backlit Buick tri-shield logo leads into the distinctive mid-hood crease prevalent in classic Buicks and consistent across the new Buick line today.

The prominent LED headlamps show influences of popular Chinese liuli glass through three-dimensional transparent and multifaceted surfaces.

Liuli is a Chinese crystal sculpture art form that incorporates cultural and modern references. It has become a popular symbol of modern Chinese prosperity.
Buick Business Concept Headlights Design Sketch Buick Business Concept Headlamp
The elongated, jewel-like headlamps are connected to the body shoulder line through a strong chrome accent that flows the length of the vehicle from the hood to the body sides, accentuating a strong double sweep spear design until it finally comes to rest wrapped around the taillights.

Buick Business ConceptThis is the most distinctive design element of the Business Concept Vehicle, as it offers a modern approach to the classic Buick double sweep spear.

Familiar Buick portholes are integrated into the chrome strip extending from the headlamps.

This distinctive double sweep spear shape not only provides expressive dynamism to the vehicle profile, it is also functionally important.

It defines the window line from the body sides and incorporates the rail guides for the power sliding doors. Additionally, it lowers the rear passenger sightline and adds significant shoulder room to the rear compartment.

Buick Business Concept“This vehicle was inspired by the grace and gesture of great Buicks. PATAC designers have cleverly incorporated other design cues from traditional Chinese art, such as applying a huiwen motif on the turn signals and fog lamps,” Cao Min said.

The Zitan Purple exterior color was chosen to elicit the right level of attention and respect.

The color is found in rare zitan wood used for sculptures and fine Chinese furniture. This deep burnt-purple color perfectly highlights the concept’s grandeur.

Power sliding doors with no B-pillar were selected for their ability to showcase an expansive view of the interior and ease of entrance and egress.

The Business Concept Vehicle sits on 20-inch, 9-spoke forged aluminum wheels, with a polished mirror finish, and low-profile tires. The outside mirrors incorporate turn signals with the huiwen motif.

Buick Business Concept Interior Design SketchSerenity and advanced functionality come to mind when entering the vehicle.

The use of deep burgundy suede and subtle creams, representing earth and wood themes, are conveyed through high-quality leather bucket seats, plush vehicle carpet and a luxurious padded steering wheel.

Completing the tranquil feel is a roof comprised of two full-length sunroofs that offer a celestial connection for occupants.

“Through deep burgundy suede carpet, high-quality leather interior decoration with liuli and soft, ice blue ambient lighting, we wanted to create a mobile VIP lounge for passengers,” Cao Min said.
Buick Business Concept Interior Design Sketch Buick Business Concept Interior Design Sketch

Buick Business Concept InteriorInterior trim and features befitting Buick prestige abound such as a power central console with a deployable tablet for writing or to hold a laptop computer.

The console can be moved up and down the two rows of rear seats.

The second row of power captain’s chairs slide on hidden rails and swivel 225 degrees, enabling them to be adjusted to an infinite combination of orientations.

Traditional huiwen patterns are embroidered onto the seats and seat backs, bringing harmony to the entire design theme.

The three-dimensional instrument cluster reaches across the entire width of the front panel and features a multi-layer information display.

Buick Business Concept Interior Design SketchThe instrument cluster design reflects the liuli art influence but is utterly modern in design.

It is complemented by a central console with touch pad controls on either side of a cylinder-shaped roller mouse. A large LED display crowns the central console.

Once again, the huiwen motif shows up as details on the wings of the instrument panel.

The OnStar security telematics feature is easily accessible on the rearview mirror, with three prominently yet tastefully displayed call buttons.

Buick Business Concept Interior
Buick Business Concept Interior

“The design of the vehicle inherits Buick’s vision for business class on the road, creating a sense that space means possibility,” Cao Min said.
GM Hybrid System
PATAC designed the Buick Business Concept Vehicle to accommodate the next-generation GM Hybrid System, which will be introduced in China in the near future.

Buick Business Concept Engine Design SketchThe next-generation GM Hybrid System will build upon the successful belt-alternator-starter hybrid technology currently available in the Buick LaCrosse Eco-Hybrid.

An advanced lithium-ion battery will help make the next-generation GM Hybrid System more powerful than the current system, improving fuel economy of vehicles with this system by up to 20 percent, depending on engine and vehicle application.

The next-generation GM Hybrid System helps optimize fuel efficiency and reduce emissions by turning the engine off at idle, offering brief electric-only propulsion, using a more powerful electric motor to enhance engine efficiency, extending fuel cutoff during deceleration, extending regenerative braking to recapture more energy and performing intelligent hybrid battery charging.

“Developing and launching the Business Concept Vehicle in China underscores the diversity, strength and depth of GM’s global design network,” Welburn said. “It also reflects PATAC’s growing role within the GM design family and China’s significance as the world’s largest Buick market.”
Buick Business Concept Buick Business Concept Buick Business Concept
About PATAC

The Pan Asia Technical Automotive Center Co., Ltd. (PATAC), founded on June 12,1997, is the first Sino-foreign automotive engineering and design joint venture between General Motors and SAIC in China.
Buick Business Concept Buick Business Concept

Since its establishment 12 years ago, with the vision of becoming a domestically leading automotive design and development company, PATAC has combined GM’s advanced technology and management with SAIC’s insight and experience in the China market.
Buick Business Concept Car Specifications
Buick Business ConceptExterior Dimensions

* Wheelbase (mm): 3,198
* Length (mm): 5,278
* Width without mirror (mm): 1,985
* Height (mm): 1,809
* Curb weight (kg): 1,903
* Front track (mm): 1,665
* Rear track (mm): 1,655
* Wheels: 20-inch alloy wheels, P275/40 R20 tires

Powertrain and Chassis

* Engine type: 2.4-liter 4-cylinder engine with Spark-Ignition, Direct Injection (SIDI)
* Transmission type: 6-speed automatic transmission with hybrid auxiliary pump
* Drive type: Front-wheel drive
* Range (km): >700
* Front suspension: Independent, MacPherson suspension
* Rear suspension: Semi-independent, open-section twist axle suspension
* Electrical power steering system: Electric power-assisted rack-and-pinion

Performance (Projected)

* 0-100 km/h (sec): 12.9
* Top speed (kph): 190

Rinspeed's first underwater Car

2009-06-21T19:52:00.000+05:30

Rinspeed’s Zero-Emission World Debut at the Geneva Motor Show - a Green “Fish” with Q-Factor

Thirty years after the movie thriller ‘The Spy Who Loved Me’ hit the silver screen “sQuba” is the first car that can actually ‘fly’ under water.

“Dive it again, James!” If the situation gets too hot for the secret agent he’ll go underground - or under water. So demonstrated impressively by Roger Moore in ‘The Spy Who Loved Me” in 1977 when he dove below the waves in a sleek vehicle that moments before seemed to be an ordinary car. The only problem: The scene never really took place; it was an animation.

With the “sQuba,” the world’s first real submersible car, the movie fake now becomes reality for visitors of the Geneva Motor Show (March 6th - 16th, 2008). Rinspeed boss Frank M. Rinderknecht (52) is known for his extraordinary automotive creations. The acknowledged James Bond enthusiast and Swiss automobile visionary kept revisiting this scene in his mind over and over: “For three decades I have tried to imagine how it might be possible to build a car that can fly under water. Now we have made this dream come true.”

And it is this submerged stabile flight at a depth of 10 meters that sets the “sQuba” apart from military vehicles. While the latter can go under water, they are limited to driving slowly over the submerged ground. Rinderknecht: “It is undoubtedly not an easy task to make a car watertight and pressure resistant enough to be maneuverable under water. The real challenge however was to create a submersible car that moves like a fish in water.”

It also had to be a sports car that was converted into a diving dream in the facilities of Swiss engineering specialist Esoro. In a first step the combustion engine was removed and replaced by several electric motors. Three motors are located in the rear. One provides propulsion on land, the other two drive the screws for underwater motoring. They are supported by two powerful Seabob jet drives in the front, which ‘breathe’ through special rotating louvers from HS Genion (for opening and closing the water intake). The rotating outlet jets were designed to be extremely light yet twist resistant by using high-tech nano materials, so-called Carbon Nano Tubes.

It is a sure bet that the “sQuba” will steal the show from any ‘Baywatch’ beauty on the beach. And easily, too: You drive the car into the water and the car floats. That is, until you crack the door to let the water in. Immediately the “sQuba” starts on his way to the underwater world. The occupants’ breathing air comes from an integrated tank of compressed air that divers know from scuba diving. Rinderknecht: “For safety reasons we have built the vehicle as an open car so that the occupants can get out quickly in an emergency. With an enclosed cabin opening the door might be impossible.” But safety wasn’t the only reason for choosing an open-top design: With an enclosed volume of just two cubic meters of air the vehicle weight would have to increase by two tons (!) to counteract the unwanted buoyancy, giving the “sQuba” the land mobility of a turtle. Without occupants the “sQuba” surfaces automatically. It is even capable of autonomous driving on land thanks to a sophisticated laser sensor system from the Hamburg company Ibeo - without any help from the driver or passenger.

Power is supplied by rechargeable Lithium-Ion batteries. Rinderknecht: “The ‘sQuba’ is a zero-emission car as documented by the rotating license plate in the rear. It produces no exhaust emissions. The Swiss are among the world’s pioneers in the area of hydropower. The ‘sQuba’s’ filling station is the water reservoir.” It is no surprise that the vehicle features powerful yet energy-saving LED lighting technology.

3-D foil elements with embossed fish and sharkskin patterns from Wetzel Processing Group and Hornschuch add visual pizzazz and streamline the exterior. Together with styling elements from Foliatec they create a harmonious velvety matt-white appearance.

For shore leave the “sQuba” relies on a stainless coil-over suspension from KW automotive and large Pirelli tires mounted on custom-made forged light-weight wheels from AEZ with 17- and 18-inch diameters. But the “sQuba” is really at home in the water. To make the occupants feel at home there as well the innovative salt-water resistant interior from Strähle + Hess features genuine mother-of-pearl trim and diamond-plated non-slip inlays from KGS Diamond, normally used in high-tech abrasives. After all, ‘diamonds are a girl’s best friends.’ The high-tech VDO instrument cluster and controls create a futuristic ambiance and allow controlling all vehicle functions even while submerged.

Frank M. Rinderknecht and his partners - amongst them also the fleet specialist LeasePlan - have created a truly unusual vehicle and in the process have thought of everything. Even the Motorex lubricants used in the ‘sQuba” are biodegradable. For the Rinspeed boss that is a meticulousness stemming from conviction: “The ‘sQuba’ lets me be one with the elements and lets me immerse myself in a new and fascinating world - with Q factor. It is our duty to protect this world in which we are guests to the best of our ability.” Isn’t it, Miss Moneypenny? - James couldn’t have said it better himself glancing at the sporty Swiss precision chronograph from C.F. Bucherer. Eau la la - shaken, not stirred.

Lake Baikal

2009-05-17T11:42:00.002+05:30

Baikal , Buryat: Байгал нуур Baygal nuur, meaning "the rich lake" is in southern Siberia in Russia, located between Irkutsk Oblast to the northwest and the Buryat Republic to the southeast, near the city of Irkutsk. It is also known as the "Blue Eye of Siberia". It contains more water than all of the North American Great Lakes combined.

At 1,637 meters (5,370 ft), Lake Baikal is the deepest lake in the world, and the largest freshwater lake in the world by volume. However, Lake Baikal contains less than one third the amount of water as the Caspian Sea, which is the largest lake in the world. Like Lake Tanganyika, Lake Baikal was formed in an ancient rift valley and therefore, is long and crescent-shaped with a surface area of (31,494 km2/12,160 sq mi), less than that of Lake Superior or Lake Victoria. Baikal is home to more than 1,700 species of plants and animals, two thirds of which can be found nowhere else in the world[6] and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996. At more than 25 million years old, it is the oldest lake in the world.

A Russian mini-submarine attempting to set a record for the deepest freshwater dive on July 29, 2008, was originally reported as being successful, but a correction later emerged that reported the MIR I failed to do so, reaching a depth of only 1,580 meters (5,200 ft).

Geography and hydrography

Lake Baikal was known as the "North Sea" in historical Chinese texts. It was situated in the then Xiongnu territory and very little was known about the lake, until the Trans-Siberian railway was built between 1896 and 1902. The scenic railway loop encircling Lake Baikal required 200 bridges and 33 tunnels. As it was being built, a large hydrogeographical expedition headed by F.K. Drizhenko produced the first detailed atlas of the contours of Baikal's depths. The atlas demonstrated that Lake Baikal has more water than all of North America's Great Lakes combined — 23,600 cubic kilometers (5,700 cu mi), about 20% of the total unfrozen fresh surface water on the earth. However, in surface area, it is exceeded by the much shallower Great Lakes, Superior, Huron and Michigan, in North America, as well as by the relatively shallow Lake Victoria in East Africa.[9] Known as the "Galápagos of Russia", its age and isolation have produced some of the world's richest and most unusual freshwater fauna, which is of exceptional value to evolutionary science.[5]

Lake Baikal is in a rift valley, created by the Baikal Rift Zone, where the crust of the earth is pulling apart.[3] At 636 kilometers (395 mi) long and 79 kilometers (49 mi) wide, Lake Baikal has the largest surface area of any freshwater lake in Asia (31,494 km2/12,160 sq mi) and is the deepest lake in the world (1,637 m/5,370 ft). The bottom of the lake is 1,371 meters (4,500 ft) below sea level, but below this lies some 7 kilometers (4.3 mi) of sediment, placing the rift floor some 8–9 kilometers (more than 5 miles) below the surface: the deepest continental rift on Earth.[3] In geological terms, the rift is young and active—it widens about two centimeters per year. The fault zone is also seismically active; there are hot springs in the area and notable earthquakes every few years. It drains into the Angara tributary of the Yenisei.

Its age is estimated at 25–30 million years, making it one of the most ancient lakes in geological history. It is unique among large, high-latitude lakes, in that its sediments have not been scoured by overriding continental ice sheets. U.S. and Russian studies of core sediment in the 1990s provide a detailed record of climatic variation over the past 250,000 years. Longer and deeper sediment cores are expected in the near future. Lake Baikal is furthermore the only confined fresh water lake in which direct and indirect evidence of gas hydrates exists.[10][11][12]

The lake is completely surrounded by mountains. The Baikal Mountains on the north shore and the taiga are technically protected as a national park. It contains 22 islands; the largest, Olkhon, is 72 kilometers (45 mi) long. The lake is fed by as many as three hundred and thirty inflowing rivers.[2] The main ones draining directly into Baikal are the Selenga River, the Barguzin River, the Upper Angara River, the Turka River, the Sarma River and the Snezhnaya River. It is drained through a single outlet, the Angara River.

Despite its great depth, the lake's waters are well-mixed and well-oxygenated throughout the water column, compared to the stratification that occurs in such bodies of water as Lake Tanganyika and the Black Sea.

Olkhon, the largest island in Lake Baikal, is the fourth-largest lake-bound island in the world.

Wildlife

Omul Fish at the Listvyanka market.

The extent of biodiversity present in Lake Baikal is equaled by few other lakes. Lake Baikal hosts 1,085 species of plants and 1,550 species and varieties of animals. More than 80% of the animals are endemic. Epischura baikalensis is endemic to Lake Baikal and the dominating zooplankton species there: 80 to 90 percent of total biomass.[13] The Baikal Seal or nerpa (Phoca sibirica) is found throughout Lake Baikal. It is one of only three entirely freshwater seal species in the world, the other being the two subspecies of freshwater Ringed Seal. Perhaps the most important local species is the omul (Coregonus autumnalis migratorius), a smallish endemic salmonid. It is caught, smoked and then sold widely in markets around the lake.

Of particular note are the two species of golomyanka or Baikal oil fish (Comephorus baicalensis and C. dybowskii). These long-finned, translucent fish normally live in depths of 200 to 500 meters (660–1,600 ft) and are the primary prey of the Baikal seal, representing the largest fish biomass in the lake. They are famous for disintegrating into a pool of oil and bones when exposed to sunlight. The Baikal grayling (Thymallus arcticus baicalensis), a fast swimming salmonid, popular among anglers and the Baikal sturgeon (Asipenser baerri baicalensis), are both important endemic species with commercial value.

Bear and deer are common and hunted along Baikal shores

Research

Several organizations are carrying out natural research projects on Lake Baikal. Most of them are governmental or associated with governmental organizations. The Baikalian Research Centre is an independent research organization carrying out environmental educational and research project at Lake Baikal.[14]

In July 2008, Russia sent two small submersibles, Mir-1 and Mir-2, to descend 1,592 meters (5,220 ft) to the bottom of Lake Baikal to conduct geological and biological tests on its unique ecosystem. They did not set a world record for the deepest fresh water dive, currently held by Anatoly Sagalevitch, at 1,637 meters (5,370 ft) (also in Lake Baikal aboard a Pisces submersible in 1990).[15][16] Russian scientist and federal politician, Artur Chilingarov, also joined the 60 dives.

Baikal Deep Underwater Neutrino Telescope

Since 1993, neutrino research has been conducted at the Baikal Deep Underwater Neutrino Telescope (BDUNT). The first part of NT-200, the detector NT-36 with 36 optical modules (OMs) at 3 short strings, was put into operation and took data up to March 1995. A 72-OMs array, NT-72, run in 1995–96. In 1996, it was replaced by the four-string array NT-96. Summed over 700 days effective life time, 320,000,000 muon events have been collected with NT-36, -72, -96. The first neutrino events have been selected. Since April 6, 1997, NT-144, a six-string array with 144 OMs, took data in Lake Baikal. NT-200 array is completed in April, 1998. The Baikal Neutrino Telescope NT-200 is being deployed in Lake Baikal, 3.6 kilometers (2.2 mi) from shore at a depth of 1.1 kilometers (0.68 mi). It consists of 192 optical modules (OMs)

Tourism

The lake in the winter, as seen from the tourist resort of Listvyanka. The ice is thick enough to support pedestrians and snowmobiles.
The lake in the summer, as seen from Bolshiye Koty on the southwest shore.

The lake, called "the Pearl of Siberia", drew investors from the tourist industry as energy revenues sparked an economic boom.[19] Viktor Grigorov's Grand Baikal in Irkutsk is one of the investors, who planned to build three hotels creating 570 jobs. In 2007, the Russian government declared the Baikal region a special economic zone. The popular resort of Listvyanka is home to the seven-story Hotel Mayak. Baikal was also declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1996. Rosatom plans to build a laboratory in Baikal, in conjunction with an international uranium plant and to invest $2.5bn in the region and create 2,000 jobs in the city of Angarsk

Source :- You Tube
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Baikal

Dream Taxi

2009-04-04T11:03:00.001+05:30

Cabinentaxi (English spelling often given as Cabintaxi) was a German urban transit development project, undertaken by the joint venture of Mannesmann Demag and MBB under a program of the German Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMFT, the German Ministry of Research and Development).[1] It had several operating modes, and was accepted as a technically successful trial of some of the concepts of personal rapid transit (PRT).

History

BMFT had many transportation technology development efforts underway in this period, and the Cabintaxi program was by far the most extensive urban transit program that it managed[citation needed]. Significant within the transportation development programs of the BMFT was the direct involvement of the VOV (German Association of Public Transit Operators), the Deutsche Bundesbahn (German Federal Railway) and their safety experts. This assured that when system development was completed, the systems would meet German (and by extension international) public transit standards.
System design

While the core elements of the Cabintaxi system were based around the concepts of PRT, for example with vehicle sparations of 1.9 seconds, the system's design scope was broader with the intention of offering more urban application potential.
While Cabintaxi offered full PRT (small-vehicle origin-to-destination) routing, the joint venture partners recognized the difficulty of starting a PRT project without phasing, and that larger vehicles would allow greater market acceptance and more practical initial applications. For this reason, larger capacity vehicles were developed. These vehicles could operate as single units, or "married pairs" (two independent vehicles coupled to be considered one two car unit) of two 12-passenger vehicles (24 passenger units) and two 18-passenger vehicles (36 passenger units.) The higher capacity vehicles were seen as allowing greater initial capacity in areas with limited route coverage. Married pairs of higher capacity vehicles allow for higher capacity simple shuttle applications. Simulations showed that for route operations, married pairs reduced system flexibility and added little if anything in capacity for systems that could operate at under three second headways. The 12 and 18 passenger vehicles had the same width and height as the PRT versions, and could operate over the same small profile guideway. These systems were designed for seated passengers only.
For the seated passenger systems, there were three variants, one with vehicles running above the guideway, one below the guideway, and a combination where vehicles traveled both over and under the guideway. The over and under variation doubled route capacity while reducing the overall passenger trip time and the amount of elevated structure needed to serve a given geographic area when compared to the single level vehicle approaches. All were based on common components in a modular guideway/vehicle design.
A more robust guideway option was provided with standing passenger vehicles intended for more conventional transit or institutional service. This system called, Cabinlift, allowed standing passenger vehicles, operated above or underneath the guideway, but did not provide a combination over and under system option as the Cabintaxi technology.
Testing

Cabintaxi technology logged over 400,000 vehicle-miles between 1975 and 1978 at their test track in Hagen, Germany. In 1977 the system completed fleet operation endurance testing of 7500 continuous vehicle hours - and again in 1978 of 10,000 continuous vehicle hours. The fleet was made up of a maximum of 24 operating vehicles over two levels. These are the only PRT fleet endurance test of these magnitudes ever carried out successfully with vehicle separations under 3 seconds.
The development program was considered successful by the German Government and its safety authorities and in 1979 was authorized for urban transit applications in German cities.
Hamburg and Detroit projects

A system was proposed for Hamburg, initially consisting of approximately 7.5 miles of over and under guideway with 11 stations and 50 vehicles. The total costs for this initial installation was estimated by the Hamburg Hochbahn in 1977 to be $56,568,000 or $7.5 million per double lane mile. These were not the final system costs which would have only been determined after construction, and cost increases were already being experienced as the project neared the start of construction.
Cabintaxi was also considered one of the leading contenders for the US Downtown People Mover Program, and was widely recognized as the favorite system to win the Detroit People Mover Project. For the Detroit project, the system's over-and-under beam was a major advantage as the City of Detroit specified a single beam system, and the Cabintaxi system was the only competitor capable of bi-directional operation on a single beam.
The schedules for the Detroit People Mover Program and the Hamburg application appeared to conflict, so the consortium chose to withdraw from the US competition and concentrate on Hamburg. This withdrawal aggravated officials of the German government, as the system had been developed with expectation that it would be a significant export product[citation needed]. It coincided with a request by the American government for increased defense spending by the NATO allies, which resulted in a funding cut to all other departments of the German government. BMFT withdrew funding for the Hamburg project with a statement that among other things[citation needed], the failure to pursue the export market — specifically Detroit, and the mandated budget cuts, led to its decision.
The developing firms found themselves without a market opportunity in Europe or the United States, and withdrew from the public transit field. The United States firm of Cabintaxi Corporation obtained the technology shortly after the development team withdrew from the field.

My Dream Crown

2009-03-26T00:44:00.001+05:30

The Imperial State Crown is one of the British Crown Jewels.
The Crown is of a design similar to St Edward's Crown: it includes a base of four crosses pattée alternating with four fleurs-de-lis, above which are four half-arches surmounted by a cross. Inside is a velvet cap with an ermine border. The Imperial State Crown includes several precious gems, including: 2,868 diamonds, 273 pearls, 17 sapphires, 11 emeralds, and 5 rubies.
The Crown includes several famous jewels. The Cross atop the Crown is set with a stone known as St. Edward's Sapphire, a sapphire taken from the ring (or possibly coronet) of Edward the Confessor. The Black Prince's Ruby (actually a spinel) is set on the front cross pattée. Furthermore, the famous Cullinan II, or Lesser Star of Africa, is set on the front of the Crown. The back of the crown is set with the 104 carat (20.8 g) Stuart Sapphire in its band.
It is generally worn at the end of a coronation when the new monarch departs from Westminster Abbey and is not normally the actual crown used at the moment of coronation. However it was actually worn during the ceremony by Queen Victoria and King Edward VII, both of whom complained about the weight of the normally used crown, St Edward's Crown.
The Imperial State Crown is worn annually by the Queen at the State Opening of Parliament. Traditionally, the Crown and other jewels leave in their own carriage and arrive at the Palace of Westminster prior to the Queen's departure from Buckingham Palace. They are then transported to the Robing Room, where the Queen dons her robes and wears the Crown.
The current Imperial State Crown was manufactured for the coronation of King George VI in 1937 by the Crown Jewellers Garrard & Co. It is an exact replica of the earlier Imperial State Crown manufactured for Queen Victoria, but is of a more lightweight design and less uncomfortable to wear. Because of its weight (910 g), monarchs often choose to wear the Imperial State Crown in their private apartments on and off for a couple of hours on the morning of the State Opening of Parliament so they can get used to the weight and feel comfortable with it on. (One courtier reported on the morning of a State Opening witnessing Queen Elizabeth eating her breakfast and reading newspapers while wearing it.)
The frames of the old Imperial State Crowns of, among others, Kings George I, George IV and Queen Victoria are kept in the Tower of London. As the most frequently worn royal crown, the Imperial State Crown has constantly been replaced, due to age, weight, the personal taste of the monarch, or the unavoidable damage that comes with use. Due to its constant usage, it is also the crown that requires most outside repairs and recasting.
The Imperial State Crown, except when in use at State Openings, together with the other Crown Jewels, may be found on display at Jewel House in the Tower of London.

My Dream Mall--Dubai Mall--Largest in the world

2009-03-26T00:21:00.005+05:30

The Dubai Mall is the one of the world's largest shopping malls located in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Part of the Burj Dubai, the 20-billion-dollar project is the medium in total area with 1,200 shops. It is 4 times as many as the new Westfield London shopping centre. Twice delayed, Dubai Mall opened on November 4, 2008, with about 600 retailers, marking the world's largest-ever mall opening in retail history. However it is not the largest in gross leaseable space, and is surpassed in that category by several malls including the South China Mall, Golden Resources Mall, SM City North Edsa, and SM Mall of Asia.

Over 12 million sq ft (equivalent in size to more than 50 soccer pitches), the Dubai Mall has a total internal floor area of 5.9 million square feet (55 ha) and leasable space of 3.77 million square feet (35 ha), about same as West Edmonton Mall.[5]
It surpasses the previously largest mall in the Middle East City Stars, which is located in Cairo, Egypt. With a gross area of over 8 million sq feet (74 ha), City Stars was the largest mall in the Middle East since 2003.
The Dubai Mall has 10–15 distinct 'malls-within-a-mall', totaling 9 million ft² (84 ha) of shopping retail space (comprising of a total of 1200 stores, when fully operational). Featured attractions include: the world's largest Gold Souk with 220 retailers; the 850,000 sq ft (79,000 m2) Fashion Catwalk atrium; Fashion Island (Avenue), with 70 stores dedicated to haute couture; the Middle East's first Galeries Lafayette department store; Oasis Fountain Waterfall; and WaterFront Atrium. Other attractions include the region's first SEGA indoor theme park covering 76,000 sq ft (7,100 m2); KidZania, a 80,000 sq ft (7,400 m2) children's 'edu-tainment' centre; a 22-screen Cineplex, the largest in Dubai; and The Grove, an indoor-outdoor streetscape with fully retractable roof. It also features over 160 food and beverage options, 220 gold & jewelry outlets; a supermarket and an organic food mart. Among the shops is British toy store Hamley's, which opened a 32,000-square foot (3,000 m²) store that includes a replica of London's Regent Street, with the franchise owned by Retail Arabia. Many shops, however, remained shuttered for a long while to come. Bloomingdales might open by 2010 and Galeries Lafayette, by February, 2009. It also has a 250-room luxury hotel, 22 cinema screens plus 120 restaurants and cafes. The Mall has over 14,000 parking spaces across 3 car parks, with valet services and a car locator ticketing system.[6]
The mall has won five awards. It won two awards at the Retail Future Project Awards at MAPIC, Cannes, in 2004, for Best Retail Development Scheme (Large), Best Use of Lighting in a Retail Environment.[7] And the Dubai Mall brochure has won three awards at the Summit Creative Awards 2005, in Portland, Oregon; Gold award for Best Art Direction / Graphic Design, Silver award for Best 4-colour B2B Brochure, and Judges Special Recognition award.[7]

The Aquarium
Dubai Aquarium and Discovery Centre
The Mall's Dubai Aquarium and Discovery Centre, developed and operated by Oceanis Australia Group, officially earned the Guinness World Record for the world's "Largest Acrylic Panel" (32.88 m wide × 8.3 m high × 750 mm thick and weighing 245,614 kg). The acrylic viewing panel is larger than Japan's Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium (22.5 m wide × 8.2 m high and 600 mm thick). Its 750 mm thick acrylic viewing panel can withstand pressure of 10 million litres of water used in the aquarium, but its transparency gives visitors clear views of over 33,000 marine animals on display. The Mall adopted an International Standard of Ethics and Animal Welfare Policy in its development and operation.

Dubai Ice Rink

The Mall's Dubai Ice Rink multi-purpose venue, uses refrigeration plant technology by developing 1.5 inches (38 mm) of ice bed, almost 3 times the thickness of an NHL ice rink for Olympic-sized attraction. Dubai Ice Rink can host a capacity of up to 2,000 guests, when converted into a multi-functional hall with world-class multimedia system including a 20 m × 10 m LED screen. Operations Manager, Richard Rowlands, a 7 years Welsh figure skating pairs, described it: "Dubai Ice Rink in itself is an exciting facility, bringing the first-ever Olympic-sized ice rink to Dubai. A top-class facility offering the best of, including over 1,800 pairs of skates imported from a leading manufacturer in Italy to fit children and adults of all ages and sizes, the Dubai Ice Rink will host themed nights, Learn-to-Skate programmes, figure skating lessons and hockey matches.The advanced technology used at the Dubai Ice Rink ensures that the consistency of the ice-bed is maintained at all times. By incorporating the refrigerator technology of pushing in glycol through a network of pipes, and monitoring the cooling over a period of five to six days, the 38 mm ice-bed is tailored to withstand multiple activities in a safe environment."
Construction

The mall is being built by a Joint Venture of Dutco Balfour Beatty, Al Ghandi/CCC[13] and Turner Construction[citation needed] for client Emaar Properties and was scheduled to be completed in 2006, claiming to be the size of 50 "international-sized football (soccer) pitches". Most of the workers who built the mall with the laboring are Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi & Sri Lankan guest workers. This is the worlds largest mall and so it holds a lot of worlds first in its specifications. It has a water feature named Fountain Oasis which was recently opened. It was inaugrated on 1st Jan 2009. The in-building coverage for Dubai mall was commissioned, integrated and carried out by Motorola Dubai for Etisalat & DU.
The mall's construction is complete with a few shops yet to be opened. It has been open to public since November 4, 2008.
Shops

The Dubai Mall contains more than 1,200 shops and is anchored by Galeries Lafayette, Debenhams, Bloomingdale's, and Marks & Spencer.

Source- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai_Mall

Dream Car -- The fastest Car in the World BUGATTI VEYRON

2009-02-18T18:32:00.003+05:30

The Bugatti Veyron EB 16.4 is a mid-engine supercar produced by Volkswagen Group subsidiary Bugatti Automobiles SAS and introduced in 2005 as the fastest production car in the world. It is currently one of the fastest accelerating and decelerating production cars in the world, with a 0 -100- 0 time of 8.6 seconds and, at 1.1 million Euro (1.5 million USD) , it is also one of the most expensive cars in the world.

Powered by a 736-kilowatt (1,001 PS; 987 hp) W16 engine,[2] it can reach 408.47 km/h (253.81 mph).[3]. The car reached full production in September 2005, and is handcrafted in a factory Volkswagen built near the former Bugatti headquarters in Château St Jean in Molsheim (Alsace, France). It is named after French racing driver Pierre Veyron, who won the 24 hours of Le Mans in 1939 while racing for the original Bugatti company. Two examples of the Veyron are known to have been wrecked since production began

Development of this vehicle began with the 1999 EB 18/4 "Veyron" concept car which itself had a chassis based on that of the Bugatti 18/3 Chiron concept car. Introduced at the Tokyo Motor Show, it was similar in design and appearance to the final Veyron production car. One major difference was the EB 18/4's use of a W18 engine with three banks of six cylinders. The Veyron's chief designer was Hartmut Warkuss with exterior designed by Jozef Kabaň of Volkswagen rather than Giorgetto Giugiaro of ItalDesign who had handled the three prior Bugatti concepts too.

The then Volkswagen Group chairman Ferdinand Piëch announced the Veyron at the 2000 Geneva Motor Show. It was promised to be the fastest, most powerful and most expensive car in history. Instead of the W18, it would use a VR6/WR8-style W16 engine. First seen in the 1999 Bentley Hunaudières concept car, the W16 would have four turbochargers and produce a quoted (metric) 1001 horsepower (see engine section for details on the power output). Top speed was promised at 407 km/h (253 mph), and the price was announced at €1 million.

Development continued throughout 2001 and the EB 16/4 Veyron was promoted to "advanced concept" status. In late 2001, Bugatti announced that the car, officially called the "Bugatti Veyron 16.4", would go into production in 2003.

Piëch retired that year as chairman of the Volkswagen Group and was replaced by Bernd Pischetsrieder. The new chairman promptly sent the Veyron back to the drawing board for major revisions. Neumann was replaced as Bugatti president by Thomas Bscher in December 2003, and substantial modifications were made to the Veyron under the guidance of former VW engineer, Bugatti Engineering head, Wolfgang Schreiber.

The Veyron costs €1,100,000 (net price without taxes);[citation needed] prices vary by exchange rates and local taxes (like value added taxes). Prices for the UK or the US are over £880,000, or around $1,400,000, and at a production cost of around £2 million are sold at a great loss to Bugatti. However, the car is often compared to Concorde as a feat of technology.

Specifications and performance
The Veyron's quad-turbocharged W16 engine

The Veyron features a W16 engine — 16 cylinders in two banks of eight cylinders, or the equivalent of two narrow-angle V8 engines mated in a "W" configuration. Each cylinder has 4 valves for a total of 64, but the narrow staggered 8 configuration allows two camshafts to drive two banks of cylinders so only 4 camshafts are needed. The engine is fed by four turbochargers and displaces 8.0 L (7,993 cc/488 cu in) with a square 86 mm by 86 mm (3.4 in × 3.4 in) bore and stroke.

The transmission consists of a dual-clutch Direct-Shift Gearbox computer-controlled manual gearbox with seven gear ratios, with red paddles behind the steering wheel boasting an <150 ms shift time. This is designed and manufactured by Ricardo of England (and not Borg-Warner who designed the 6-speed DSG used in the mainstream marques of the Volkswagen Group). The Veyron can be driven as a full automatic transmission. It also features full-time four-wheel drive, utilising the Haldex Traction system. It uses special Michelin run-flat tires, designed specifically for the Veyron to accommodate its top speed, which reportedly cost $25,000 US per set.[12] Curb weight is 2,034.8 kg (4,486 lb).[12] This gives the car a power to weight ratio of 4.5 lb (2.0 kg)/1 bhp (0.7 kW).

The car's wheelbase is 2710 mm (106.7 in). Overall length is 4462 mm (175.7 in), width 1998 mm (78.7 in) and height 1204 mm (47.4 in).
The Veyron's hydraulic rear spoiler in the extended position

The Bugatti Veyron has a total of 10 radiators.

* 3 radiators for the engine cooling system.
* 1 heat exchanger for the air-to-liquid intercoolers.
* 2 for the air conditioning system.
* 1 transmission oil radiator.
* 1 differential oil radiator.
* 1 engine oil radiator.
* 1 hydraulic oil radiator for the spoiler

It has a drag coefficient of 0.36,[14] and a frontal area of 2.07 square metres (22.3 sq ft).[15] This gives it a CdA ft² value of 8.02.

Power

According to Volkswagen (and approved by TÜV Süddeutschland), the final production Veyron engine produces 1,001 PS (736 kW; 987 hp) and 1,250 N·m (920 ft·lbf) of torque.[2] The horsepower figure is believed by some to actually be conservative, with the real total being 1001 or more.[16]

Top speed

Top speed was initially promised to be 420 km/h (260 mph), but test versions were unstable at that speed, forcing a redesign of the aerodynamics. In May 2005, a prototype Veyron tested at a Volkswagen track near Wolfsburg, Germany recorded an electronically limited top speed of 400 km/h (249 mph). In October 2005, Car and Driver magazine's editor Csaba Csere test drove the final production version of the Veyron for the November 2005 issue. This test, at Volkswagen's Ehra-Lessien test track, reached a top speed of 407.5 km/h (253.2 mph). The top speed was verified once again by James May on Top Gear, again at Volkswagen's private test track, when the car hit 407.9 km/h (253.5 mph), which equated to precisely one-third of the speed of sound at sea level. When getting close to the top speed during the test, May said that "the tires will only last for about fifteen minutes, but it's okay because the fuel runs out in twelve minutes." He also gave an indication of the power requirements, at constant 250 km/h (155 mph) the Veyron is using approximately 270 to 280 horsepower (200 to 210 kW)[17], but to get to its rated 407 km/h (253 mph) top speed required far more from the engine. Once back in the Top Gear studio James was asked by co - presenter Jeremy Clarkson what the Veyron felt like to drive at 407 km/h (253 mph), James replied that it was "completely undramatic", and very stable at speed.

Aerodynamic friction or drag is proportional to the square of the speed; for example doubling speed quadruples drag. Work is a product of force applied over a distance travelled. Comparing a vehicle travelling at 160 km/h (99 mph) with one travelling at 320 km/h (200 mph), over a given time (e.g. 1 second), the faster vehicle must overcome 4 times the aerodynamic drag, and travel twice the distance of the slower one. Thus it does 8 times the work of the slower vehicle in that time. As power is work done in time taken it follows that the swifter vehicle, travelling at twice the speed requires 8 times the power of the slower one. German inspection officials recorded an average top speed of 408.47 km/h (253.8 mph)[3] during test sessions on the Ehra Lessien test track on 2005-04-19.

The car's everyday top speed is listed at 375 km/h (233 mph). When the car reaches 220 km/h (137 mph), hydraulics lower the car until it has a ground clearance of about 8.9 cm (3½ inches). At the same time, the wing and spoiler deploy. This is the "handling mode", in which the wing helps provide 3425 newtons (770 pounds) of downheft, holding the car to the road.[13] The driver must, using a special key (the "Top Speed Key"), toggle the lock to the left of his seat in order to attain the maximum (average) speed of 407 km/h (253 mph). The key functions only when the vehicle is at a stop, when a checklist then establishes whether the car—and its driver—are ready to enable 'top speed' mode. If all systems are go, the rear spoiler retracts, the front air diffusers shut and the ground clearance, normally 12.5 cm (4.9 in), drops to 6.5 cm (2.6 in).

Acceleration

The Bugatti Veyron has the greatest acceleration of any production car to date, reaching 100 km/h (62 mph) in approximately 2.45 seconds.[18], which equates to an average acceleration of around 1.18g. It is the first production car with an average acceleration greater than 1 g when going from 0 to 100 km/h (62 mph) flat out. The car is greatly aided in achieving such times by the presence of a four-wheel drive system that permits the transmission of such great amounts of power in the initial stages of acceleration.

The Veyron reaches 200 km/h (124.3 mph) and 300 km/h (186.4 mph) in 7.0 and 16.2 seconds respectively. According to the February 2007 issue of Road & Track magazine, the Veyron accomplished the quarter mile (~400 m) in 10.2 seconds at an exit speed of 143.6 mph (231.1 km/h).

Fuel consumption

The Veyron consumes more fuel than any other production car, using 40.4 L/100 km (6.99 mpg-imp; 5.82 mpg-US) in city driving and 24.1 L/100 km (11.7 mpg-imp; 9.76 mpg-US) in combined cycle.[citation needed] At full throttle, it uses more than 115 L/100 km (2.46 mpg-imp; 2.05 mpg-US), which would empty its 100 L (22 imp gal; 26 US gal) fuel tank in just 12 minutes.[19][20]

Braking

The Veyron's brakes use cross-drilled, radially-vented Carbon fibre-reinforced Silicon Carbide (C/SiC) composite discs, manufactured by SGL Carbon, which have a much greater resistance to brake fade when compared with conventional cast iron discs. The aluminium alloy monobloc brake calipers are made by AP Racing; the fronts have eight[13] titanium pistons and the rear calipers have six pistons. Bugatti claims maximum deceleration of 1.3 Gs on road tyres.

Prototypes have been subjected to repeated 1.0G braking from 194 to 50 MPH (312 to 80 km/h) without fade. With the car's acceleration from 50 to 194 mph (80 to 312 km/h), that test can be performed every 22 seconds. At speeds above 124 mph (200 km/h), the rear wing also acts as an airbrake, snapping to a 55-degree angle in 0.4 seconds once brakes are applied, providing 0.68 Gs (4.9 m/s²) of deceleration (equivalent to the stopping power of an ordinary hatchback).[13] Bugatti claims the Veyron will brake from 400 km/h (249 mph) to a standstill in less than 10 seconds

Dream Airways -- Emirates

2009-02-18T11:52:00.012+05:30

Emirates Airline (shortened form: Emirates) is a subsidiary of The Emirates Group based in Dubai, United Arab Emirates (UAE). In 2008 the airline was the eighth-largest airline in the world in terms of international passengers carried, and fifth-largest in the world in terms of scheduled international passenger-kilometres flown. It is also the ninth-largest in terms of scheduled freight tonne-kilometres flown (eighth in scheduled international freight tonne-kilometres flown). The airline ranks amongst the top 10 carriers worldwide in terms of revenue, and has become the largest airline in the Middle East in terms of revenue, fleet size, and passengers carried and is the eighth largest airline in Asia, in terms of passengers carried. The airline operates over 3,710 passenger flights per week, to over 100 destinations in 62 countries. Cargo activities are undertaken by the Emirates Group's Emirates SkyCargo division. Its main base is Dubai International Airport.[5] On 16 October 2008, Emirates moved all operations at Dubai International Airport to Terminal 3, a new terminal dedicated exclusively to Emirates. Terminal 3 is over 1,500,000 m2 (370 acres), the single largest terminal building in the world.
During the 2007/08 financial year, Emirates carried 21.2 million passengers. A total of 1.3 million tonnes of cargo was transported by Emirates Airline and Emirates SkyCargo, the freight subsidiary of The Emirates Group.
Emirates is one of only six airlines to operate an all wide-body aircraft fleet. Emirates will have 122 Boeing 777s in its fleet by 2011 making it the single largest aircraft type in fleet, and 58 Airbus A380s by 2012. The airline also hopes to have over 120 Airbus A350's in its fleet by 2016. The airline expects to have over 200 aircraft in its fleet by 2013. Experts suggest, that Emirates will have over 500 aircraft in their fleet by 2021.
Emirates became the second operator of the Airbus A380 when their first aircraft was delivered on 28 July 2008. It is now in operation on the Dubai-New York JFK, Dubai-London Heathrow, and Dubai-Sydney-Auckland routes.

The Emirates A380 promises customers in all classes a whole new travel experience*. Designed to transport passengers on long-haul journeys in unmatched comfort, the Emirates A380 boasts First Class Shower Spas, a spacious Onboard Lounge, and our award-winning ice inflight entertainment system offering over 1,000 channels of movies, music and games on-demand in all classes.

Emirates A380 First Class

Flying First Class on the Emirates A380 opens up a new world of options.

For the first time in aviation history passenger indulge in an invigorating shower at 43,000 feet.
Located on the upper deck of the Emirates A380, in front of the First Class cabin are two exquisitely designed onboard Showers for First Class customers.

For the first time in aviation history you can indulge in an invigorating shower at 43,000 feet.
Located on the upper deck of the Emirates A380, in front of the First Class cabin are two exquisitely designed onboard Showers for our First Class customers. Arrive at your destination revitalised and refreshed.
Each suite in the A380 has a 23” television screen, allowing you to explore over 1000 on-demand video and audio channels of our award winning ice Digital Widescreen entertainment system.
The privacy divider separating the adjoining suites in the centre row can also be lowered, allowing you to share the experience with your travel companion.
Dine-on-demand meal service, allows you to order from our a la carte menu any time you desire.
n the First Class Social Area, located at the front of the upper deck of the Emirates A380, a unique water feature together with mood lighting creates a serene ambience.
Enjoy the privacy and exclusivity of your First Class Social Area for a quick refreshment and drink or join fellow passengers from Business Class in the exclusive Onboard Lounge located aft of the upper deck.

Emirates A380 Business Class

Experience new levels of comfort when you travel Business Class on the Emirates A380.
Using your touch-screen wireless seat controller to adjust your seat and to select channels on demand, you can tailor the entire experience to suit your own preferences.

Stretch your legs during the flight and take a walk to the spacious Lounge on board the Emirates A380. Read a newspaper, listen to music, use your laptop, or simply enjoy the view from the aircraft’s external cameras.
A variety of drinks and hot and cold beverages are available throughout your flight. Our Lounge attendant is available at all times to assist customers with their requests, ensuring that your time in the First and Business Class Lounge is a tasteful and enjoyable experience.

Emirates A380 Economy Class

Adjustable headrests, more space and a sliding base allowing deeper seat recline, means more comfort for our Economy Class passengers on the Emirates A380.
Of course, our award-winning, multilingual cabin crew from over 100 nations is on hand to provide everything you need throughout the flight.

With more choice than ever before, the new generation Economy Class seats on the Emirates A380 feature over 1000 channels of on-demand ice movies, audio and TV on a 10.6" Digital widescreen.
Every seat has its own laptop power supply and USB connection, allowing you to view videos and pictures from your laptops or portable devices.

Emirates A380 Environmental Facts
The Emirates A380 burns up to 20% less fuel per seat than today’s largest aircraft
This is the most significant advancement in reducing fuel burn and emissions in four decades
Low fuel burn means lower C02 emissions. The Emirates A380 produces less than 75g of C02 per passenger kilometre, almost half of the European target for cars manufactured in 2008
Emirates A380s will progressively feature digital inflight magazines, entertainment guides and shopping catalogues, saving 2kg per seat or almost one tonne per aircraft
Emirates A380s, which offers more space per passenger in all classes, will also meet ICAO’s gaseous emissions standards by a substantial margin
We will comfortably meet current Stage Three and proposed Stage Four noise level standards
Our new Emirates A380 maintenance facilities in Dubai are state of the art, efficient buildings
A380s feature lightweight materials that account for 25% of its structure
Our emissions components – such as NOx – will be well under the regulated ‘cap four’ rule
Emirates is working with Airbus to further reduce weight of our future A380s
Larger aircraft mean less takeoff and landings (in passenger terms, some Emirates A380 versions would be the equivalent of flying up to seven smaller aircraft types)
Emirates average fleet age is less than half that of many European airlines, meaning newer technology and efficiency breakthroughs characterise our aircraft.

Aircraft Specification

Passenger capacity 3 class - 489 Ultra Long Range & 517 Long Range
2 class - 600 Medium Range
Wingspan 261 ft 8 in / 79.8 m
Length 238 ft 6 in / 72.7 m
Height 79 ft 7 in /24.1 m
Cabin width 21 ft 7 in / 6.58 m Main Deck & 19 ft 5 in / 5.92 m Upper Deck
Engines GP7000
Thrust 70,000 lbs
Maximum range 8,000 nautical miles / 15,000 km
Cruising speed (Mach) 0.85
Cruising altitude 43,100 ft

Source:-http://www.emirates.com

Antarctica

2009-02-13T10:40:00.002+05:30

Antarctica is Earth's southernmost continent, overlying the South Pole. It is situated in the southern hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14.4 million km² (5.4 million sq mi), it is the fifth-largest continent in area after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice, which averages at least 1.6 kilometres (1.0 mi) in thickness.

On average, Antarctica is the coldest, driest and windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the continents.[1] Antarctica is considered a desert, with annual precipitation of only 200 mm (8 inches) along the coast and far less inland.[2] There is only one permanent human resident.[3] Only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including penguins, seals, mosses, lichen, and many types of algae.

The name Antarctica is the romanized version of the Greek compound word ανταρκτική (antarktikí), feminine of ανταρκτικός (antarktikos),[4] meaning "opposite to the north".[5] Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ("Southern Land") date back to antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent is commonly accepted to have occurred in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Mikhail Lazarev and Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen. However, the continent remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of resources, and isolation. The first formal use of the name "Antarctica" as a continental name in the 1890s is attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew.

The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by twelve countries; to date, forty-six countries have signed the treaty. The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's ecozone. Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists of many nationalities and with different research interests.[6]

History

The snow surface at Dome C Station is representative of the majority of the continent's surface.
An iceberg dwarfs a ship in this 1920s English magazine illustration of a whaler in the Antarctic.

Belief in the existence of a Terra Australis—a vast continent in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Europe, Asia and North Africa—had existed since the times of Ptolemy (1st century AD), who suggested the idea to preserve the symmetry of all known landmasses in the world. Depictions of a large southern landmass were common in maps such as the early 16th century Turkish Piri Reis map. Even in the late 17th century, after explorers had found that South America and Australia were not part of the fabled "Antarctica", geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size.

European maps continued to show this hypothetical land until Captain James Cook's ships, HMS Resolution and Adventure, crossed the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773, in December 1773 and again in January 1774.[7] Cook in fact came within about 75 miles (121 km) of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of field ice in January 1773.[8] The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by three individuals. According to various organizations (the National Science Foundation,[9] NASA,[10] the University of California, San Diego,[11] and other sources[12][13]), ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica in 1820: Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen (a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy), Edward Bransfield (a captain in the Royal Navy), and Nathaniel Palmer (an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut). Von Bellingshausen saw Antarctica on 27 January 1820, three days before Bransfield sighted land, and ten months before Palmer did so in November 1820. On that day the two-ship expedition led by Von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev reached a point within 32 kilometers (20 mi) of the Antarctic mainland and saw ice fields there. The first documented landing on mainland Antarctica was by the American sealer John Davis in Western Antarctica on 7 February 1821, although some historians dispute this claim.

In December 1839, as part of the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–42 conducted by the United States Navy (sometimes called the "Ex. Ex.", or "the Wilkes Expedition"), an expedition sailed from Sydney, Australia, into the Antarctic Ocean, as it was then known, and reported the discovery "of an Antarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands". That part of Antarctica was later named "Wilkes Land", a name it maintains to this day.

In 1841, explorer James Clark Ross passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island (both of which were named for him). He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the Ross Ice Shelf (also named for him). Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: HMS Erebus and Terror.[14] Mercator Cooper landed in Eastern Antarctica on 26 January 1853.
Nimrod Expedition South Pole Party (left to right): Wild, Shackleton, Marshall and Adams

During the Nimrod Expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1907, parties led by T. W. Edgeworth David became the first to climb Mount Erebus and to reach the South Magnetic Pole. Douglas Mawson, who assumed the leadership of the Magnetic Pole party on their perilous return, went on to lead several expeditions until retiring in 1931.[16] In addition, Shackleton himself and three other members of his expedition made several firsts in December 1908 – February 1909: they were the first humans to traverse the Ross Ice Shelf, the first to traverse the Transantarctic Mountain Range (via the Beardmore Glacier), and the first to set foot on the South Polar Plateau. On 14 December 1911, an expedition led by Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen from the ship Fram became the first to reach the geographic South Pole, using a route from the Bay of Whales and up the Axel Heiberg Glacier.[17] One month later, the ill-fated Scott Expedition reached the pole.

Richard Evelyn Byrd led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport on the continent and conducting extensive geological and biological research.[18] However, it was not until 31 October 1956 that anyone set foot on the South Pole again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral George J. Dufek successfully landed an aircraft there.
The first person to sail single-handed to Antarctica was the New Zealander David Henry Lewis, in a 10-meter steel sloop Ice Bird.

Geography

Size comparison Europe-Antarctica

Centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle, Antarctica is the southernmost continent and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean; alternatively, it may be considered to be surrounded by the southern Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, or by the southern waters of the World Ocean. It covers more than 14 million km² (5.4 million sq mi), making it the fifth-largest continent, about 1.3 times as large as Europe. The coastline measures 17,968 kilometres (11,160 mi) and is mostly characterized by ice formations, as the following table shows:
Coastal types around Antarctica (Drewry, 1983) Type Frequency
Ice shelf (floating ice front) 44%
Ice walls (resting on ground) 38%
Ice stream/outlet glacier (ice front or ice wall) 13%
Rock 5%
Total 100%

Antarctica is divided in two by the Transantarctic Mountains close to the neck between the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea. The portion west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called Western Antarctica and the remainder Eastern Antarctica, because they roughly correspond to the Western and Eastern Hemispheres relative to the Greenwich meridian.

About 98% of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, a sheet of ice averaging at least 1.6 kilometres (1.0 mi) thick. The continent has about 90% of the world's ice (and thereby about 70% of the world's fresh water). If all of this ice were melted, sea levels would rise about 60 metres (200 ft).[20] In most of the interior of the continent, precipitation is very low, down to 20 millimetres (0.8 in) per year; in a few "blue ice" areas precipitation is lower than mass loss by sublimation and so the local mass balance is negative. In the dry valleys the same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a desiccated landscape.

West Antarctica is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. The sheet has been of recent concern because of the real, if small, possibility of its collapse. If the sheet were to break down, ocean levels would rise by several metres in a relatively geologically short period of time, perhaps a matter of centuries. Several Antarctic ice streams, which account for about 10% of the ice sheet, flow to one of the many Antarctic ice shelves.

East Antarctica lies on the Indian Ocean side of the Transantarctic Mountains and comprising Coats Land, Queen Maud Land, Enderby Land, Mac Robertson Land, Wilkes Land and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of this region lies within the Eastern Hemisphere. East Antarctica is largely covered by the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.
Mount Erebus, an active volcano on Ross Island

Vinson Massif, the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892 metres (16,050 ft), is located in the Ellsworth Mountains. Antarctica contains many other mountains, both on the main continent and the surrounding islands. Although Antarctica is home to many volcanoes, only Mount Erebus is known to be active. Located on Ross Island, Erebus is the southernmost active volcano. There is another famous volcano called Deception Island, which is famous for its giant eruption in 1970. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active.[21] In 2004, an underwater volcano was found in the Antarctic Peninsula by American and Canadian researchers. Recent evidence shows this unnamed volcano may be active.[22]

Antarctica is home to more than 70 lakes that lie at the base of the continental ice sheet. Lake Vostok, discovered beneath Russia's Vostok Station in 1996, is the largest of these subglacial lakes. It was once believed that the lake had been sealed off for 500,000 to one million years but a recent survey suggests that, every so often, there are large flows of water from one lake to another.[23] There is some evidence, in the form of ice cores drilled to about 400 metres (1,300 ft) above the water line, that Vostok's waters may contain microbial life. The frozen surface of the lake shares similarities with Jupiter's moon Europa. If life is discovered in Lake Vostok, this would strengthen the argument for the possibility of life on Europa.[24][25] On 7 February 2008, a NASA team embarked on a mission to Lake Untersee, searching for extremophiles in its highly-alkaline waters. If found, these resilient creatures could further bolster the argument for extraterrestrial life in extremely cold, methane-rich environments

Climate

The blue ice covering Lake Fryxell, in the Transantarctic Mountains, comes from glacial meltwater from the Canada Glacier and other smaller glaciers.

Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth. The coldest natural temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983.[30] For comparison, this is 11 °C colder than subliming dry ice. Antarctica is a frozen desert with little precipitation; the South Pole itself receives less than 10 centimeters (4 in) per year, on average. Temperatures reach a minimum of between −80 °C and −90 °C (−112 °F and −130 °F) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between 5 °C and 15 °C (41 °F and 59 °F) near the coast in summer. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it.[31] Eastern Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry. Despite the lack of precipitation over the central portion of the continent, ice there lasts for extended time periods. Heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 meters (48 in) in 48 hours have been recorded.
Near the coast, December looks fairly temperate.

At the edge of the continent, strong katabatic winds off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, however, wind speeds are typically moderate. During summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface during clear days at the South Pole than at the equator because of the 24 hours of sunlight each day at the Pole.[6] There is some speculation that Antarctica is warming as a result of human CO2 emissions but this has not been proven.[32]

Antarctica is colder than the Arctic for two reasons. First, much of the continent is more than 3 kilometers (2 mi) above sea level, and temperature decreases with elevation. Second, the Arctic Ocean covers the north polar zone: the ocean's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica.
Mountain glaciation

Given the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight create climates unfamiliar to human beings in much of the rest of the world. The aurora australis, commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the South Pole created by the plasma-full solar winds that pass by the Earth. Another unique spectacle is diamond dust, a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. It generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as clear-sky precipitation. A sun dog, a frequent atmospheric optical phenomenon, is a bright "spot" beside the true sun.[31]

Population

Antarctica has only one permanent resident, Father Georgy, the priest of Trinity Church, Antarctica[citation needed], but a number of governments maintain permanent research stations throughout the continent. The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from about 1,000 in winter to about 5,000 in the summer. Many of the stations are staffed year-round.
Two researchers studying plankton through microscopes.

The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica (areas situated south of the Antarctic Convergence) were British and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on South Georgia, from 1786 onward. During the whaling era, which lasted until 1966, the population of that island varied from over 1,000 in the summer (over 2,000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion of Britons. The settlements included Grytviken, Leith Harbour, King Edward Point, Stromness, Husvik, Prince Olav Harbour, Ocean Harbour and Godthul. Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was the founder of Grytviken, Captain Carl Anton Larsen, a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who, along with his family, adopted British citizenship in 1910.
Field work.

The first child born in the southern polar region was Norwegian girl Solveig Gunbjörg Jacobsen, born in Grytviken on 8 October 1913, and her birth was registered by the resident British Magistrate of South Georgia. She was a daughter of Fridthjof Jacobsen, the assistant manager of the whaling station, and of Klara Olette Jacobsen. Jacobsen arrived on the island in 1904 to become the manager of Grytviken, serving from 1914 to 1921; two of his children were born on the island.[33]

Emilio Marcos Palma was the first person born on the Antarctic mainland, at Base Esperanza in 1978; his parents were sent there along with seven other families by the Argentine government to determine if family life was suitable on the continent. In 1984, Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Frei Montalva Station, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station.[34]

Flora and fauna

Flora
More than 200 species of lichens are known in Antarctica.

The climate of Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation. A combination of freezing temperatures, poor soil quality, lack of moisture, and lack of sunlight inhibit the flourishing of plants. As a result, plant life is limited to mostly mosses and liverworts. The autotrophic community is made up of mostly protists. The flora of the continent largely consists of lichens, bryophytes, algae, and fungi. Growth generally occurs in the summer, and only for a few weeks at most.

There are more than 200 species of lichens and about 50 species of bryophytes, such as mosses. Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are phytoplankton. Multicolored snow algae and diatoms are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer. There are two species of flowering plants found in the Antarctic Peninsula: Deschampsia antarctica (Antarctic hair grass) and Colobanthus quitensis (Antarctic pearlwort).[35]

Fauna

Few terrestrial vertebrates live in Antarctica.[36] Invertebrate life includes microscopic mites, lice, nematodes, tardigrades, rotifers, krill and springtails. The flightless midge Belgica antarctica, just 12 millimeters (0.5 in) in size, is the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica. The Snow Petrel is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica. They have been seen at the South Pole.[citation needed]
Emperor Penguins in Ross Sea, Antarctica.

A variety of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes penguins, blue whales, orcas, colossal squids and fur seals. The Emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the Adélie Penguin breeds farther south than any other penguin. The Rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. King penguins, Chinstrap penguins, and Gentoo Penguins also breed in the Antarctic.

The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. The Weddell Seal, a "true seal", is named after Sir James Weddell, commander of British sealing expeditions in the Weddell Sea. Antarctic krill, which congregates in large schools, is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean, and is an important food organism for whales, seals, leopard seals, fur seals, squid, icefish, penguins, albatrosses and many other birds.[37]

The passing of the Antarctic Conservation Act in the U.S. brought several restrictions to U.S. activity on the continent. The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty, as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The overfishing of krill, which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty that came into force in 1980, requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem.[6] Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of Patagonian toothfish (marketed as Chilean Sea Bass in the U.S.), remains a serious problem. The illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing, with estimates of 32,000 tonnes (35,300 short tons) in 2000.[38][39]

Politics

Antarctica has no government and belongs to no country. Various countries claim areas of it, but while some have mutually recognized each other's claims,[40] no other countries recognize such claims.[6]

Since 1959, new claims on Antarctica have been suspended and the continent is considered politically neutral. Its status is regulated by the 1959 Antarctic Treaty and other related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System. For the purposes of the Treaty System, Antarctica is defined as all land and ice shelves south of 60° S. The treaty was signed by twelve countries, including the Soviet Union (and later Russia), the United Kingdom, Argentina, Chile, Australia and the United States. It set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation, environmental protection, and banned military activity on that continent. This was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War.
Designed by Graham Bartram, this is the most popular unofficial flag of Antarctica, symbolizing the continent's neutrality.

In 1983, the Antarctic Treaty Parties began negotiations on a convention to regulate mining in Antarctica.[41] A coalition of international organisations launched a public pressure campaign to prevent any minerals development in the region, led largely by Greenpeace International[43] which established its own scientific station – World Park Base - in the Ross Sea region and conducted annual expeditions to document environmental impacts from human activities on the continent.[45] In 1988, the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources (CRAMRA) was adopted.[46] The following year, however, Australia and France announced that they would not ratify the convention, rendering it dead for all intents and purposes. Instead, they proposed that a comprehensive regime to protect the Antarctic environment be negotiated in its place.[47] As other countries followed suit, the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the ‘Madrid Protocol’) was negotiated and on 14 January 1998 it entered into force. The Madrid Protocol bans all mining activities in Antarctica, designating the continent as a ‘natural reserve devoted to peace and science’.

The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activity in Antarctica, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military manoeuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon. Military personnel or equipment are permitted only for scientific research or for other peaceful purposes.The only documented land military manoeuvre was Operation NINETY, undertaken by the Argentine military.

The United States military issues the Antarctica Service Medal to military members or civilians who perform research duty in Antarctica. The medal includes a "wintered over" bar issued to those who remain on the continent for two complete six-month seasons

Source:-

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica
http://www.frozensouth.com/

Dream Destination-- Land of Inkas--- Peru...

2009-02-06T02:13:00.003+05:30

Peru , officially the Republic of Peru is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.

Peruvian territory was home to the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the world, and to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty, which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving independence in 1821, Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis as well as periods of stability and economic upswing.

Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. Its geography varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the Andes mountains and the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country with a medium Human Development Index score and a poverty level around 40%. Its main economic activities include agriculture, fishing, mining, and manufacturing of products such as textiles.

The Peruvian population, estimated at 28 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.

Etymology

The word Peru is derived from Birú, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama, in the early 16th century.[3] When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.[4] Thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Peru.[5] The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.[6] Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became Republic of Peru after independence.

History

The earliest evidence of human presence in Peruvian territory has been dated to approximately 11,000 years BCE.[7] The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3000 and 1800 BCE.[8] These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures such as Chavin, Paracas, Mochica, Nazca, Wari, and Chimu. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.[9] Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money.[10]
Machu Picchu, the "Lost City of the Incas"

In 1532, a group of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated Inca Emperor Atahualpa and imposed Spanish rule. Ten years later, the Spanish Crown established the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of its South American colonies.[11] Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with silver mining as its main economic activity and Indian forced labor as its primary workforce.[12] Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.[13] However, by the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.[14] In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty of Peru.[15] The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were defeated.[16]

In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite hesitated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence was achieved only after the military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar.[17] During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.[18] National identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation foundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral.[19] Between the 1840s and 1860s, Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla due to increased state revenues from guano exports.[20] However, by the 1870s, these resources had been squandered, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.[21]
Angamos, a decisive battle during the War of the Pacific.

Peru was defeated by Chile in the 1879–1883 War of the Pacific, losing the provinces of Arica and Tarapacá in the treaties of Ancón and Lima. Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía.[22] The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).[23] The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades.[24]

In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, staged a coup against president Fernando Belaunde. The new regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development but failed to gain widespread support.[25] In 1975, Velasco was forcefully replaced as president by General Francisco Morales Bermúdez, who paralyzed reforms and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.[26] During the 1980s, Peru faced a considerable external debt, ever-growing inflation, a surge in drug trafficking, and massive political violence.[27] Under the presidency of Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000), the country started to recover; however, accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations forced his resignation after the controversial 2000 elections.[28] Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth; since 2006 the president is Alan García.[

Government

Congress sits in the Palacio Legislativo in Lima.

Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. Under the current constitution, the President is the head of state and government; he or she is elected for five years and cannot seek immediate re-election, he or she must stand down for at least one full constitutional term before reelection.[30] The President designates the Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.[31] There is a unicameral Congress with 120 members elected for a five-year term.[32] Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President.[33] The judiciary is nominally independent,[34] though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.[35]

The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory for all citizens aged 18 to 70.[36] General elections held in 2006 ended in a second round victory for presidential candidate Alan García of the Peruvian Aprista Party (52.6% of valid votes) over Ollanta Humala of Union for Peru (47.4%).[37] Congress is currently composed of the Peruvian Aprista Party (36 seats), Peruvian Nationalist Party (23 seats), Union for Peru (19 seats), National Unity (15 seats), the Fujimorista Alliance for the Future (13 seats), the Parliamentary Alliance (9 seats) and the Democratic Special Parliamentary Group (5 seats).[38]

Peruvian foreign relations have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century.[39] There is still an ongoing dispute with Chile over maritime limits in the Pacific Ocean.[40] Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations. The Peruvian military is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.[41] The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.[42]

Regions

Ama
zonas
Ancash
Apurímac
Arequipa
Ayacucho
Caja
marca
Cusco
Huánuco
Huanca
velica
Ica
Junín
La Libertad
Lamba
yeque
Lima
Lima
Province
Callao
Loreto
Madre de Dios
Moquegua
Pasco
Piura
Puno
Tacna
Tumbes
San
Martín
Ucayali

Peru is divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and a council, which serves for a four-year term.[43] These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.[44] The province of Lima is administered by a city council.[45]

Regions:

* Amazonas
* Ancash
* Apurímac
* Arequipa
* Ayacucho
* Cajamarca
* Callao
* Cusco
* Huancavelica
* Huánuco
* Ica
* Junín
* La Libertad

* Lambayeque
* Lima
* Loreto
* Madre de Dios
* Moquegua
* Pasco
* Piura
* Puno
* San Martín
* Tacna
* Tumbes
* Ucayali

Province:

* Lima

Geography

Peru covers 1,285,220 km² (496,193 sq mi), making it approximately two-thirds the size of Mexico. It neighbors Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west.

The Andes mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean, dividing the country into three geographic regions. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán.[46] The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60% of the country's area is located within this region,[47] (70 million hectares) giving Peru the fourth largest area of tropical forest in the world after Brazil, Congo and Indonesia.[48]

Most Peruvian rivers originate in the Andes and drain into one of three basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River are longer, have a much larger flow, and are less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.[49] Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali, the Marañón, the Putumayo, the Yavarí, the Huallaga, the Urubamba, the Mantaro, and the Amazon.[50]
The peaks of the Andes are the source of many Peruvian rivers.

Peru, unlike other equatorial countries, does not have an exclusively tropical climate; the influence of the Andes and the Humboldt Current causes great climatic diversity within the country. The costa has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.[51] In the sierra, rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.[52] The selva is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.[53] Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003; 5,855 of them endemic.[54] The Peruvian government has established several protected areas for their preservation.

Economy

The seaport of Callao is the main outlet for Peruvian exports.

Peru is a developing country with a 2005 Human Development Index score of 0.773.[55] Its 2006 per capita income was US$3,374;[56] 39.3% of its total population is poor, including 13.7% that is extremely poor.[57] Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.[58] Although exports have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.[59]

Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 1968–1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic planning system, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations.[60] Despite these adverse results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies.[61] Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[62]

Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).[63] Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.[64] Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States signed on April 12, 2006.[65] Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.[66]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Peru

Peruvian woman and child of Amerindian ancestry

With about 28 million inhabitants, Peru is the fourth most populous country in South America as of 2007.[67] Its demographic growth rate declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.[68] As of 2007, 75.9% lived in urban areas and 24.1% in rural areas.[69] Major cities include Lima, Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo, all of which reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census.[70]

Peru is a multiethnic nation formed by the combination of different groups over five centuries. Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before Spanish Conquest in the 16th century; their population decreased from an estimated 9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly due to infectious diseases.[71] Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and with indigenous peoples. After independence, there has been a gradual European immigration from England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain.[72] Chinese arrived in the 1850s as a replacement for slave workers and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.[73] Other immigrant groups include Arabs and Japanese.

Spanish, the first language of 83.9% of Peruvians age 5 and older in 2007, is the primary language of the country. It coexists with several indigenous languages, the most important of which is Quechua, spoken by 13.2% of the population. Other native and foreign languages were spoken at that time by 2.7% and 0.1% of Peruvians, respectively.[74] In the 2007 census, 81.3% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 12.5% as Evangelical, 3.3% as of other denominations, and 2.9% as non-religious.[75] Literacy was estimated at 92.9% in 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).[76] Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.[77]

Culture

Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions,[78] though it has also been influenced by various African, Asian, and European ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.[79] During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are representative.[80] Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century.[81] Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.[82]

Peruvian literature has its roots in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.[83] In the early 20th century, the Indigenismo movement produced such writers as Ciro Alegría,[84] José María Arguedas,[85] and César Vallejo.[86] During the second half of the century, Peruvian literature became more widely known because of authors such as Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.[87]
Ceviche is a citrus marinated seafood dish.

Peruvian cuisine is a blend of Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from African, Arab, Italian, Chinese, and Japanese cooking.[88] Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, humitas, and pachamanca. Because of the variety of climates within Peru, a wide range of plants and animals are available for cooking.[89] Peruvian cuisine has recently received acclaim due to its diversity of ingredients and techniques.[90]

Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish and African roots.[91] In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely from region to region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments.[92] Spanish conquest brought the introduction of new instruments such as the guitar and the harp, as well as the development of crossbred instruments like the charango.[93] African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion instrument.[94] Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, danza de tijeras and huayno.[95]

Source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru

Dream Mansion:- UpdownCourt-- US$175 million

2009-02-01T15:16:00.002+05:30

Updown Court is a private residence in windlesham, Surrey, England and is the most expensive private residence that is currently on the market. It is the largest private residence to be built in the United Kingdom since the 19th century and is currently still listed with Savills and Hamptons International, UK. It was launched on the market in 2005 for £70,000,000.

History
The original Updown Court, built in 1924 and owned by Prince Sami Gayed of Egypt, was severely damaged by a fire in 1987. The estate is set in the center of 58 acres (230,000 m2) of grounds, comprising a stable and lake within its gardens and woodland.

Developer Leslie Allen-Vercoe then proceeded to purchase the property, which was just a burnt-out shell of the property it had been, for the approximate equivalent of $38.4 million. He has since invested a further $60 million, through the backing of an Irish bank, with the new property designed by John B Scholz, an Arizona architect. Notable aspects of the architecture include the double staircase that is modeled on the one that fashion designer Gianni Versace had in his mansion in Miami, its grey-slated rooftops, and the bathroom's honey-colored granite and green Guatemalan marble. It has been described by The Times newspaper as Californian Neo-classical. Updown Court as of December 2008 has several interested parties but none as yet has managed to prove funds to the satisfaction of the owners, Updown Court Limited.

The Estate
Entered by a $3million heated marble driveway, Updown Court has 103 rooms, of which the 24 bedrooms each has its own marble en-suite bathroom. Among other features, it has a two lane bowling alley, five swimming pools, squash court,floodlit tennis court, wine cellar, and panic room in the event of a terrorist attack, 5 acres (20,000 m2) of more than 30 different types of imported Italian marble, expansive terraces, and a 50-seat cinema. It also features an underground garage, with granite flooring, that has enough room to harbor eight limousines.[4] The first floor is the main residential area, featuring 8 generous bedroom suites. The penthouse floor contains two separate penthouses, each with 2 bedrooms and occupying an entire wing of the property.

The estimated cost for upkeep alone is over £250,000 (Over $360,000 USD) per year.

Location
Updown Court is set in the centre of 58 acres (230,000 m2) of grounds, gardens and woodland. Neighbors include Elton John and Sarah, Duchess of York

Source:- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Updown_Court
www.UpdownCourt.com

Dream Destination :- Sikkim

2009-02-01T15:01:00.001+05:30

Sikkim is a landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayas. It is the least populous state in India,[1] and the second-smallest in area after Goa. The thumb-shaped state borders Nepal in the west, Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the north and east, and Bhutan in the southeast. The Indian state of West Bengal borders Sikkim to its south.[2] The official language of the state is English, but there is a sizable population that converses in Nepali (the lingua franca of the state), Lepcha, Bhutia, and Limbu. It is the only state in India with an ethnic Nepalese majority. It is an ancient land also known as Indrakil, the garden of Indra, the king-god of heaven in Hindu religious texts. The predominant religions are Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism. Gangtok is the capital and largest town.[citation needed]

Despite its tiny size, with an area of 2,745 sq mi (7,110 km²), Sikkim is geographically diverse, owing to its location on the Himalaya. The climate ranges from subtropical to high alpine. Kangchenjunga, the world's third highest peak, is located in the northwestern part of the state on the boundary with Nepal, and can be seen from most parts of the state.[2] Sikkim is a popular tourist destination for its culture, scenic beauty and biodiversity.

The most widely accepted origin of the name Sikkim is that it is a combination of two words in the Limbu Su, which means "new", and Khyim, which means "palace" or house, in reference to the palace built by the state's first ruler, Phuntsog Namgyal. The Tibetan name for Sikkim is Denjong, which means the "valley of rice".[3] The Lepchas, original inhabitants of Sikkim called it Nye-mae-el or paradise and the Bhutias call it Beymul Demazong, which means the hidden valley of rice

Geography

Kangchenjunga (8'586 m), highest peak of India and 3rd highest on earth
Cities and towns of Sikkim.The thumb-shaped state of Sikkim is characterised by wholly mountainous terrain. Almost the entire state is hilly, with the elevation ranging from 280 metres (920 ft) to 8,585 metres (28,000 ft). The summit of the Kangchenjunga is the highest point which falls in Nepal among the top 8 mountains residing on Nepal. For the most part, the land is unfit for agriculture because of the precipitous and rocky slopes. However, certain hill slopes have been converted into farm lands using terrace farming techniques. Numerous snow-fed streams in Sikkim have carved out river valleys in the west and south of the state. These streams combine into the Teesta and its tributary, the Rangeet. The Teesta, described as the "lifeline of Sikkim", flows through the state from north to south. About a third of the land is heavily forested.

The lofty Himalayan ranges surround the northern, eastern and western borders of Sikkim in a crescent. The populated areas lie in the southern reaches of the state, in the Lower Himalayas. The state has twenty-eight mountain peaks, twenty-one glaciers, 227 high-altitude lakes, including the Tsongmo Lake, Gurudongmar and Khecheopalri Lakes, five hot springs, and over 100 rivers and streams. Eight mountain passes connect the state to Tibet, Bhutan and Nepal.[2]

Unfrozen Gurudongmar Lake in North Sikkim.

Geology
The hills of Sikkim mainly consist of gneissose and half-schistose rocks, making their soil brown clay, and generally poor and shallow. The soil is coarse, with large amounts of iron oxide concentrations, ranging from neutral to acidic and has poor organic and mineral nutrients. This type of soil tends to support evergreen and deciduous forests.

A large portion of the Sikkim territory is covered by the Precambrian rock and is much younger in age than the hills. The rock consists of phyllites and schists and therefore the slopes are highly susceptible to weathering and prone to erosion. This, combined with the intense rain, causes extensive soil erosion and heavy loss of soil nutrients through leaching. As a result, landslides are frequent, isolating the numerous small towns and villages from the major urban centres

Hot springs
Sikkim has many hot springs known for medicinal and therapeutic values. The most important hot springs are at Phurchachu (Reshi), Yumthang, Borang, Ralang, Taram-chu and Yumey Samdong. All these hot springs have high sulphur content and are located near river banks. The average temperature of the water in these hot springs is 50°C.

Climate
The climate ranges from sub-tropical in the south to tundra in the northern parts. Most of the inhabited regions of Sikkim, however, enjoy a temperate climate, with the temperatures seldom exceeding 28 °C (82 °F) in summer or dropping below 0 °C (32 °F) in winter. The state enjoys five seasons: winter, summer, spring, and autumn, and a monsoon season between June and September. The average annual temperature for most of Sikkim is around 18 °C (64 °F). Sikkim is one of the few states in India to receive regular snowfall. The snow line is around 6 000 metres (19,600 feet).

During the monsoon months, the state is lashed by heavy rains that increase the number of landslides. The state record for the longest period of non-stop rain is eleven days. In the northern region, because of high altitude, temperatures drop below −40 °C in winter. Fog also affects many parts of the state during winter and the monsoons, making transportation extremely perilous

Flora and fauna

The Rhododendron is the state tree.Sikkim is situated in an ecological hotspot of the lower Himalayas, one of only three among the Ecoregions of India. The forested regions of the state exhibit a diverse range of fauna and flora. Owing to its altitudinal gradation, the state has a wide variety of plants, from tropical to temperate to alpine and tundra, and is perhaps one of the few regions to exhibit such a diversity within such a small area.

The flora of Sikkim includes the rhododendron, the state tree, with a huge range of species occurring from subtropical to alpine regions. Orchids, figs, laurel, bananas, sal trees and bamboo in the lower altitudes of Sikkim, which enjoy a subtropical-type climate. In the temperate elevations above 1,500 metres, oaks, chestnuts, maples, birches, alders, and magnolias grow in large numbers. The alpine-type vegetation includes juniper, pine, firs, cypresses and rhododendrons, and is typically found between an altitude of 3,500 to 5 000 m. Sikkim boasts around 5,000 flowering plants, 515 rare orchids, 60 primula species, 36 rhododendron species, 11 oak varieties, 23 bamboo varieties, 16 conifer species, 362 types of ferns and ferns allies, 8 tree ferns, and over 424 medicinal plants. A variant of the Poinsettia, locally known as "Christmas Flower", can be found in abundance in the mountainous state. The orchid Dendrobium nobile is the official flower of Sikkim.

The Red Panda is the state animal of SikkimThe fauna includes the snow leopard, the musk deer, the Himalayan Tahr, the red panda, the Himalayan marmot, the serow, the goral, the barking deer, the common langur, the Himalayan Black Bear, the clouded leopard, the Marbled Cat, the leopard cat, the wild dog, the Tibetan wolf, the hog badger, the binturong, the jungle cat and the civet cat. Among the animals more commonly found in the alpine zone are yaks, mainly reared for their milk, meat, and as a beast of burden.

The avifauna of Sikkim consists of the Impeyan pheasant, the crimson horned pheasant, the snow partridge, the snow cock, the lammergeyer and griffon vultures, as well as golden eagles, quail, plovers, woodcock, sandpipers, pigeons, Old World flycatchers, babblers and robins. A total of 550 species of birds have been recorded in Sikkim, some of which have been declared endangered.[2]

Sikkim also has a rich diversity of arthropods, much of which remains unexplored even today. The best studied group remains, as with the rest of India, the butterflies. Of the approximately 1438[10] butterfly species found in the Indian subcontinent, 695 have been recorded from Sikkim. These include the endangered Kaiser-i-hind, Yellow Gorgon and the Bhutan Glory amongst others

Transport

The River Teesta said to be the lifeline of Sikkim.Sikkim does not have any airports or railheads because of its rough terrain, however a Government Grant has been approved for an airport in Pakyong.[2] The closest airport, Bagdogra Airport, is near the town of Siliguri, West Bengal. The airport is about 124 km away from Gangtok. A regular helicopter service run by the Sikkim Helicopter Service connects Gangtok to Bagdogra; the flight is thirty minutes long, operates only once a day, and can carry 4 people.[16] The Gangtok helipad is the only civilian helipad in the state. The closest railway station is New Jalpaiguri which is situated sixteen kilometres from Siliguri.[citation needed]

National Highway 31A links Siliguri to Gangtok. The highway is an all-weather metalled road which mostly runs parallel to the river Teesta, entering Sikkim at Rangpo. Numerous public and privately run bus and jeep services connect the airport, railway station, and Siliguri to Gangtok. A branch of the highway from Melli connects western Sikkim. Towns in southern and western Sikkim are connected to the northern West Bengal hill stations of Kalimpong and Darjeeling. Within the state, four wheel drives are the most popular means of transport, as they can navigate rocky slopes. Minibuses link the smaller towns to the state and district headquarters

Culture

The Gumpa being performed in Lachung during the Buddhist festival of Losar.Sikkim residents celebrate all major Indian festivals such as Diwali and Dussera, the popular Hindu festivals. Losar, Loosong, Saga Dawa, Lhabab Duechen, Drupka Teshi and Bhumchu are Buddhist festivals that are also celebrated. During the Losar – the Tibetan New Year – most government offices and tourist centres are closed for a week. Christmas has also recently been promoted in Gangtok to attract tourists during the off-season.[20]

Stone carvings at TashidingIt is common to hear Western rock music being played in homes and in restaurants even in the countryside. Hindi songs have gained wide acceptance among the masses. Indigenous Nepali rock, music suffused with a Western rock beat and Nepali lyrics, is also particularly popular. Football and cricket are the two most popular sports.

Noodle-based dishes such as the thukpa, chowmein, thanthuk, fakthu, gyathuk and wonton are common in Sikkim. Momos, steamed dumplings filled with vegetable, buff (buffalo meat) or pork and served with a soup are a popular snack. The mountain peoples have a diet rich in beef, pork and other meats. Alcohol is cheap owing to the low excise duty in Sikkim and beer, whiskey, rum and brandy are consumed by many Sikkimese - indeed, Sikkim has the highest alcoholism rate per capita of any Indian state.

Dream Destination :- Maldives

2009-02-01T14:11:00.002+05:30

The Maldives or Maldive Islands, officially the Republic of Maldives, is an island nation consisting of a group of atolls stretching south of India's Lakshadweep islands between Minicoy Island and the Chagos Archipelago, and about seven hundred kilometres (435 mi) south-west of Sri Lanka in the Laccadive Sea of Indian Ocean. The twenty-six atolls of Maldives encompass a territory featuring 1,192 islets, of which two hundred and fifty islands are inhabited.

The inhabitants were Buddhist, probably since Ashoka's period[citation needed], in the 3rd century BC and possibly Hindu before that. Islam was introduced in 1153. The Maldives then came under the influence of the Portuguese (1558) and the Dutch (1654) seaborne empires. In 1887 it became a British protectorate. In 1965, the Maldives obtained independence from Britain (originally under the name "Maldive Islands"), and in 1968 the Sultanate was replaced by a Republic.

The Maldives is the smallest Asian country in terms of both population and area; it is the smallest predominantly Muslim nation in the world. With two meters from sea level, it is also the country with the lowest highest point in the world.

The Maldives holds the record for being the lowest country in the world, with a maximum natural ground level of only 2.3 m (7½ ft) with the average being only 1.5 m above sea level, though in areas where construction exists this has been increased to several metres. Over the last century, sea levels have risen about 20 centimetres (8 in);[citation needed] further rises of the ocean could threaten the existence of Maldives. However, around 1970 the sea level there dropped 20-30 cm.[18] In November of 2008, President Mohamed Nasheed announced plans to look into purchasing new land in India, Sri Lanka, and Australia, due to his concerns about global warming and the possibility of much of the islands being inundated with water from rising sea levels. Current estimates place sea level rise at 59 cm by the year 2100. The purchase of land will be made from a fund generated by tourism.[19] The President has explained his intentions, saying "We do not want to leave the Maldives, but we also do not want to be climate refugees living in tents for decades".

Typical Maldives scenery.A tsunami in the Indian Ocean caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake caused serious damage to the socioeconomic infrastructure which left many people homeless, and irreversible damage to the environment. After the disaster, cartographers are planning to redraw the maps of the islands due to alterations caused by the tsunami.

On April 22, 2008, then Maldives President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom pleaded for a cut in global greenhouse gas emissions, warning that rising sea levels could submerge the island nation of Maldives.[21]

The reef is composed of coral debris and living coral. This acts as a natural barrier against the sea, forming lagoons. Other islands, set at a distance and parallel to the reef, have their own protective fringe of reef. An opening in the surrounding coral barrier allows access to the calmer lagoon waters.

A view of an island in the Maldives.The barrier reefs of the islands protect them from the storms and high waves of the Indian Ocean. The Indian Ocean has a great effect on the climate of the country by acting as a heat buffer, absorbing, storing, and slowly releasing the tropical heat. The heat is further mitigated by cool sea breezes.

A layer of humus 152-millimetre (6.0 in) -thick forms the top layer of soil on the islands. Below the humus layer are two feet of sandstone, followed by sand and then fresh water. Due to excessive salt in the soil near the beach, vegetation is limited there to a few plants such as shrubs, flowering plants, and small hedges. In the interior of the island, more vegetation such as mangrove and banyan grow. Coconut palms, the national tree, are able to grow almost everywhere on the islands and are integral to the lifestyle of the natives.

The limited vegetation is supplemented by the abundance of coral reefs and marine life.

The Maldivian ethnic identity is a blend of the cultures reflecting the peoples who settled on the islands, reinforced by religion and language. The earliest settlers were probably from southern India and Sri Lanka. They are linguistically and ethnically related to the people in the Indian subcontinent

Some social stratification exists on the islands. It is not rigid, since rank is based on varied factors, including occupation, wealth, Islamic virtue, and family ties. Traditionally, instead of a complex caste system, like the Vedic one, there was merely a distinction between noble (bēfulhu) and common people in the Maldives. Members of the social elite are concentrated in Malé. Outside of the service industry, this is the only location where the foreign and domestic populations are likely to interact. The tourist resorts are not on islands where the natives live, and casual contacts between the two groups are discouraged.

A census has been recorded since 1905, which shows that the population of the country remained around 100,000 for the first seventy years of the last century. Following independence in 1965, the health status of the population improved so much that the population doubled by 1978, and the population growth rate peaked at 3.4% in 1985. By 2007, the population had reached 300,000, although the census in 2000 showed that the population growth rate had declined to 1.9%. Life expectancy at birth stood at 46 years in 1978, while it has now risen to 72 years. Infant mortality has declined from 127 per thousand in 1977 to 12 today, and adult literacy stands at 99%. Combined school enrollment stands in the high 90s.

As of April 2008, more than 70,000 foreign employees live in the country and another 33,000 illegal immigrants sums up more than one third of Maldivian population. They consist mainly of people from the neighbouring South Asian countries of India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Nepal.

Pre-Islamic Buddhist Stupa of Maldives, excavated in Thoddoo in the 1950sMaldivian culture is derived from a number of sources, the most important of which are its proximity to the shores of Sri Lanka and southern India.

The official and common language is Dhivehi, an Indo-European language having some similarities with Elu, the ancient Sinhalese language. The first known script use to write Dhivehi is Eveyla akuru script which is found in historical recording of kings (raadhavalhi). Later a script called Dhives akuru was introduced and used for a long period. The present-day written script is called Thaana and is written from right to left. Thaana is said to be introduced by the reign of Mohamed Thakurufaanu. English is used widely in commerce and increasingly as the medium of instruction in government schools.

The language is of Indic Sanskritic origin, which points at a later influence from the north of the subcontinent. According to the legends, the kingly dynasty that ruled the country in the past has its origin there.

Possibly these ancient kings brought Buddhism from the subcontinent, but the Maldivian legends don't make it clear. In Sri Lanka there are similar legends, however it is improbable that the ancient Maldive royals and Buddhism came both from that island because none of the Sri Lankan chronicles mentions the Maldives. It is unlikely that the ancient chronicles of Sri Lanka would have failed to mention the Maldives if a branch of its kingdom had extended itself to the Maldive Islands.[22]

The Islamic Centre, housing the mosque Masjid-al-Sultan Mohammed Thakurufaanu-al-A'z'amAfter the long Buddhist [23] period of Maldivian history, Muslim traders introduced Sunni Islam. Maldivians converted to it by the mid-12th century. However certain potions of Sufism can be seen in the history of the country such as the building of mausoleums. These mausolems were used until as recent as 1980s, for seeking the help from the dead Saints. They can been seen today, next to some old mosques of the Maldives and are considered today as, Cultural heritages. Other aspects of Sufism such as ritualized dhikr ceremonies called Maulūdu, the liturgy of which included recitations and certain supplications in a melodical tone existed until very recent times. These Maulūdu festivals were held in ornate tents specially built for the occasion. However at present Sunni Islam is the official religion of the entire population, as adherence to it is required for citizenship.

Since the 12th century AD there are also influences from Arabia in the language and culture of the Maldives because of the general conversion to Islam in the 12th century, and its location as a crossroads in the central Indian Ocean.

In the island culture there are a few elements of African origin as well from slaves brought to the court by the royal family and nobles from their hajj journeys to Arabia in the past. There are islands like Feridhu and Maalhos in Northern Ari Atoll, and Goidhu in Southern Maalhosmadulhu Atoll where many of the inhabitants trace their ancestry to released African slaves

So what are u waiting for lets visit Maldives...

Dream Island:- Skopelos, Greece

2009-02-01T13:41:00.001+05:30

Skopelos is a Greek island in the western Aegean sea. Skopelos is one of several islands which comprise the Northern Sporades island group. The island is located east of mainland Greece, northeast of the island of Euboea and is part of the Prefecture of Magnesias in the Periphery of Thessaly. Skopelos is also the name of the main port and the municipal center of the island. The other communities of the island are Glossa and Neo Klima (Elios). The geography of Skopelos includes two mountains over 500 meters; Delphi (681 m) in the center of the island, and Palouki (546 m) in the southeast. With an area of 96 km² (36.6 mi²) Skopelos is slightly larger than Mykonos (85 km²) and Santorini (73 km²). The nearest inhabited islands are Skiathos to the west and Alonissos to the east.

History
In island legend Skopelos was founded by Staphylos or Staphylus (Greek for grape), one of the sons of the god Dionysos and the Princess Ariadne of Crete[2] . Historically, in the Late Bronze Age Skopelos, then known as Peparethos (Πεπάρηθος) or Peparethus, was colonized by Cretans who introduced viticulture to the island.

Perhaps because of the legend of its founding by the son of the god of wine, the island was known throughout the ancient Greek cities of the Mediterranean Sea for its wine. The play Philoctetes (first performed at the Festival of Dionysus in 409 BC) by Sophocles includes a wine merchant lost on his way to "Peparethos - rich in grapes and wine".

In 1936, excavations in the area of Staphylos / Velanio uncovered a royal tomb of the era of Mycenaean Greece. The island was briefly under the control of the city-state Chalcis, Euboea since at least the 8th century BC.

In turn the island would come under the political influence or direct domination of:

Athens.
the Kingdom of Macedon (338 - 146 BC).
The Roman Republic (146 - 27 BC).
The Roman Empire (27 BC - 330 AD).
The Byzantine Empire (330 - 1204).
The Republic of Venice (Duchy of the Archipelago) (1204 - 1538).
The Ottoman Empire (1538 until the Greek War of Independence).
Skopelos became part of the First Hellenic Republic under the London Protocol confirming its sovereignty (February 3, 1830.[3] During World War II, Skopelos fell under Axis occupation. At first it was occupied by the Kingdom of Italy (June, 1941 - September, 1943) and then by Nazi Germany (September, 1943 - October, 1944). Skopelos and the rest of Greece returned to democratic style government in 1944.

Communities
Skopelos (town): Located on the southeast side of the island, the main port and municipal center of the island. The town is noted for its architectural heritage.
Glossa village: Situated on the north west side of the island, just above Loutraki harbour with an elevation ranging from 200 to 300m. It is 25,4km from Skopelos town. Typical and tranquil village with traditional houses. The village faces Skiathos and the mainland.
Neo Klima: A purpose-built village constructed after the great 1965 earthquake to resettle the displaced residents of the severely damaged village of (Old) Klima. It is situated by the coast on the west side of the island, between Milia beach and Klima village. It is 3 km from Klima village, 6 km from Glossa village and 19 km from Skopelos town. The village had 415 inhabitants in the 2001 census.

Settlements
Stafilos, Agnondas, Panormos, Ananias, Klima, Glossa, Atheato, Loutraki, Kalogeros, Milli.

Demographics
In the census of 2001, the island had 4,696 inhabitants; Skopelos town had 3,027; Glossa village had 1,195 and Neo Klima (Elios) had 415 inhabitants.

Economy
The economy of Skopelos is now fully dependent on the tourism industry which supports construction and other development related industries. Though tourism is greatest during the summer months, Skopelos is also a year round retirement destination for Northern Europeans. Residents have reported a dramatic increase in tourism in recent months due to the movie Mamma Mia! being shot on the island [4]. Agriculture, once a staple of the local economy, is in decline. Plum and almond orchards exist but are less extensive than in the past. Wine production from local grapes is minimal ever since the phylloxera blight of the 1940s destroyed the vineyards. Though there is local small scale wine production using local grapes, most wine produced on the island is for home use and much is pressed from grapes imported from Thessaly. Herding of domestic goats and domestic sheep continues and a local feta type cheese is produced from these stocks. Beekeeping and honey production have increased in recent years. Skopelos supports a small fishing fleet which fishes local waters.

The island once had a vital wooden shipbuilding industry and contributed many ships to the War of Greek Independence (1821-1831). Shipbuilding began to decline after the introduction of steamships. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911) stated "Almost every householder in both islands (Skopelos and Skiathos) is the owner, joint owner or skipper of a sailing ship." Today the art of building ships and boats in the traditional style is virtually nonexistent and is seen only on the repairing of small wooden vessels. Skopelos can not support its population with locally produced food and goods. Most of what is used and consumed must be imported by ship from the mainland. Prices for food and consumer goods reflect the added expense of transportation. By law the Greek government collects less Value Added Tax for food and drink purchased on the islands (6% - 13%) than for similar items purchased in mainland Greece (9% - 15%). Still purchases of food and drink run 10 percent higher in Skopelos than on the mainland. Most building materials, including sand, must also be imported. Gasoline or petrol costs are, at minimum, fifteen percent higher than on the mainland. EU Petrol Prices

Skopelos is a matrilineal society. Wealth is passed on via the female line. By custom, the parents of each Skopelitan bride provide the new couple with at least a house and some property. The house and property remain in the bride's name. This custom is particularly insular as in most other parts of Greece, especially on the mainland and Crete, wealth is patrilineal.

Local Food Production
Olives and Olive Oil: Olive oil plays a role in the Skopelos diet, being the basis of all recipes of traditional cuisine. The most prevalent olive is the "Pelion" variety, larger and rounder than the "Kalamata". For eating the olives are cured both in the unripened and the ripened stages.
Feta: A semi-soft, crumbly, well-salted white cheese made from goat milk. Used in Skopelos cheese pie and other vegetable pies, added to salads and served with meals.
Cheese Pie: Not by definition a real pie, but a tiropita, a deep fried spiral of cheese stuffed phyllo dough. The pie is generally about 15 cm in diameter and 3 cm high.
Honey: Honey in Skopelos is mainly pine honey from conifer trees and flower-honey from the nectar of fruit trees and wild flowers.
Prunes: Oven or sun dried Blue or Red Plums.

Environment
Skopelos is one of the greenest islands in the Aegean Sea. The island has a wide range of flowers, trees and shrubs. The local vegetation is chiefly made up of forests of Aleppo Pines (Pinus halepensis), Kermes Oaks (Quercus coccifera), a small forest of Holm Oaks (Quercus ilex), Oleo-Ceratonion maquis, fruit trees and olive groves. The pine forests on Skopelos have replaced oak species that predominated in the past; this is due to a preference for pine trees, since their timber is widely used for ship construction. [1]

Ecology
As "The Green and Blue Island", Skopelos lags behind urban Greece in rubbish recycling and sewage treatment. Currently there is no rubbish recycling program in Skopelos. Solid and hazardous waste is deposited in a landfill or dumped unofficially on untended public or private land. Periodically families of Roma people come to Skopelos to collect scrap metal from areas around the island where trash has been illegally dumped. The scrap metal is removed from the island by lorry and sold on the mainland. Beer and bulk wine bottles are recycled by the distributors. There is a deposit collected for each bottle at time of purchase which is redeemed upon return.

Water Resources
The sources of the municipal water supply are various spring fed tanks located around the island. The three island communities supply water within a limited but expanding part of their jurisdictions. Homes outside the municipal water system use wells or cisterns to collect rain water. There are plans to construct an artificial lake in the area of Panormos to supply water to farmers. Private water wells supply some agricultural needs and water from these wells can be transported by lorry to outlying areas to refill cisterns or swimming pools. The municipal water is good quality. As most natural source water in limestone environments the water has a high calcium content. Construction of a 4,836,400 Euro wastewater treatment plant started in March 2007. Currently sewage from the main towns is minimally treated and pumped into the sea. The settlement at Agnondas has its own wastewater treatment facility which has been operating since 2005. Homes and hotels outside of the sewage grid use cesspool systems.

Alternative Energy
Over the past 30 years residents have begun to use solar collectors for hot water. With about 2400 hours of sunlight per year Skopelos has the potential to increase its use solar energy use and to develop alternative sources for energy which make use of a frequent and steady northerly wind. Major construction and mass tourism development projects for hotels and tourist housing have not yet embraced the concept of alternative resources. Most recently built projects rely on electricity generated on the mainland, even for hot water. The projected demand for electricity in Skopelos has caused problems in Skiathos. The Public Power Corporation had plans to run a new line to Skopelos from the mainland under the sea to Skiathos, then overland via electricity pylons and back under the sea to Skopelos. Residents of Skiathos organized a protest to stop the project and the matter now is in the hands of the Greek judicial system.

Wildlife

Domesticated Animals
Skopelos Goat: The island has it own acknowledged breed of goat named the "Skopelos". The Skopelos goat is one breed in the Southern Multicolored Group. It is a relative of the wild goat of the island of Gioura. The main occurrences of this species are in Skopelos, Alonissos, and Skiathos. Skopelos Goat, by EEAAP / Animal Genetic Data Bank
Skopelos Sheep: Sheep herds on the island belong to a distinctive group called the "Skopelos Sheep" breed.Prolific dairy sheep breeds in Greece

Birds
Skopelos has a variety of fauna - including about 60 species of wild birds-native and migratory. There are several birds of prey, most common are the Eleonora's Falcon (Falco Eleonorae), the European Scops Owl (Otus Scops) and the Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo). Also kestrels, eagles, and vultures can be seen. Very obvious throughout the island is the Hooded Crow (Corvus cornix). Occasionally Grey Herons and kingfishers and more commonly the Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), the Herring gull (Larus argentatus) and the Yellow-legged Gull (Larus michahellis) are seen along the coast. Severe winter weather can introduced rarely seen mainland birds temporarily. In March 2007 the Municipal Authorities cleaned a wetland habitat near the town beach at the outlet to the sea of Skopelos' only permanently flowing stream. The area had been home to frogs and the birds that fed on them. A large section of the area surrounding and including Mt. Palouki is posted as a no-hunting zone by the Skopelos Hunters Association. Bird species missing from other parts of the island such as the Common Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) have flourished in the protected area.

Mammals
The Northern Sporades are one of the prime breeding areas of the Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus) an endangered species. The main threat to Monachus monachus is man and his activities. Often deliberately killed or accidentally caught in fishing equipment, its food sources are declining also. In addition, marine pollution and uncontrolled tourism are causing the destruction of The seal's natural habitat. The establishment in 1992 of the National Marine Park of Alonnissos-Northern Sporades was an effort to protect this species by restricting human encroachment on seal breeding areas. Wild land mammals include Pine Martens (Martes martes), Brown Rats (Rattus norvegicus) and mice, the Southern White-breasted Hedgehog (Erinaceus concolor), bats and, though declining in numbers, European Hares. A mating pair of Fallow Deer (Dama dama) have been privately reintroduced to the island. A population of feral cats exists in and around areas of human habitation.

Reptiles
The island is home to a variety of reptiles. The Balkan Terrapin (Mauremys rivulata) can be found near fresh water along with the Greek Marsh Frog (Pelophylax kurtmuelleri) though this habitat is slowly disappearing due to development. The Balkan Wall Lizard (Podarcis taurica) is seen regularly in daylight in warm weather and the Hemidactylus turcicus at night. A larger lizard is the Balkan Green Lizard (Lacerta trilineata). Several varieties of snakes can be observed: the Montpellier Snake (Malpolon monspessulanus), the Leopard Snake (Elephe situla), the Large Whip Snake (Coluber jugularis), the Grass Snake (Natrix natrix), and the Viper (Viperidae ochia).

Amphibians
In or near or fresh water there is sometimes found the Balkan Frog (Pelophylax kurtmuelleri) and the European tree frog (Hyla arborea). Near or away from water there are Common Toads (Bufo bufo).

Architectural Heritage

A house in Skopelos renovated within the guidelines of the Presidential Decree of 1978The town of Skopelos was honored as a Traditional Settlement of Outstanding Beauty (19/10/1978 Presidential Decree 594,13-11/78, signed by President of Greece Konstantinos Tsatsos). This is the Greek equivalent of a site of Outstanding Architectural Inheritance. The building code for new construction and renovation within the village reflects some restrictions due to the Traditional Settlement decree. Some restrictions stipulate that no new buildings shall be of more than two stories, there must be a sloped cermamic or stone roof in the traditional style, and doors, windows and balconies be made of wood.

Churches
The island has more than 360 churches and chapels. Most are closed through the years except for the feast day of whom or whatever the church has been dedicated. Most have been privately built. The oldest existing ecclesiastical structure is the basilica of Agios Athanasios built in the 11th century and located in the Kastro area. All except one of the churches on the island observe the Greek Orthodox faith. The remaining church hosts a small enclave of Jehovah's Witnesses. Christianity was formalized in Skopelos by the appointment of the Bishop Riginos in the 4th Century A.D. Under the Reign of the Emperor Julian the Apostate, Riginos was martyred in 362 A.D. The Saint's feast day is February 25th - a holiday on the island.

Transportation
Automobile ownership in Greece between 1990 and 2004 increased by 121% "eurostat". http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2006/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2006_MONTH_09/7-19092006-EN-AP.PDF. Skopelos reflects this trend and the local authorities are hard pressed to deal with the increased traffic and parking issues. Along with the resident population of automobiles, the burden of tourist and summer resident vehicles and the availability of rental cars and motorbikes has created problems for which solutions have not yet been found. The construction of a large asphalt parking area along the waterfront in the late 1990s has done little to address the parking problems facing the town of Skopelos. During the summer the population of the island increases from about 5,000 to between 15,000 to 20,000 (est. 1993).[5] The island is served by commuter hydrofoils and ferryboats from the ports of Volos Magnesia and Agios Konstantinos, Phthiotis on mainland Greece which also allows connections to and from Alonissos and Skiathos. In summer there is a ferry to and from Thessaloniki and Kymi in Euboea. Skopelos has one main road which links the three main villages by coach several times daily. In the mid 1980s the Mayor's Council voted to apply to the Ministry of the Interior for the construction of an airport. The application was denied. There is a heliport in case of medical emergencies.

Beaches
The length of the coastline of Skopelos is 67 km. Due to the island's mountainous terrain most of the coast is inaccessible. The following are beaches accessible by road or trail: Staphylos, Velanio (the unofficial nudism beach), Agnondas, Limnonari, Panormos, Adrines, Milia, Kastani, Elios, Hovolo, Armenopetra, Kalives, Glyfoneri, Glysteri, Perivoliou, Keramoto, Chondrogiorgos.

Notable Skopelitans
Fani Palli-Petralia - Minister of Employment and Social Security Dec-2007. Former Minister of Tourism 2006-2007
Nikolaides Family : Nikolakis Hatzistamatis, the founder of the Nikolaides family was born in the island of Skiathos around 1770. He moved to Skopelos where he served as one of the islands highest officials. Nikolakis Hatzistamatis is mentioned by the Greek author Alexandros Papadiamantis in the novel "Hatzopoulo". His only son Jannios (1800 – 1885), changed the family name to Nikolaides. Jannios also served in high offices. Descendants of the above are the present donators of the Folklore Museum of Skopelos.

Popular culture
Skopelos and its neighbour Skiathos were the filming locations of the 2008 film Mamma Mia. The wedding procession was filmed at the Agios Ioannis Chapel on Skopelos.

Source:- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skopelos

Kalka-Shimla Railway

2009-01-30T18:33:00.003+05:30

Kalka-Shimla Railway

UNESCO World Heritage Site

The Kalka-Shimla Railway is a 2 ft 6 in (762 mm) narrow gauge railway in North-West India travelling along a mostly mountainous route from Kalka to Shimla. It is known for breathtaking views of the hills and surrounding villages, and for having the greatest incline over its 96km stretch.

History
Shimla was settled by the British shortly after the first Anglo-Gurkha war, and is located at 7116 feet in the foothills of the Himalayas. By the 1830s, Shimla had already developed as a major base for the British.[citation needed] It became the summer capital of British India in 1864, and was also the headquarters of the British army in India. Prior to construction of the railway communication with the outside world was via villiage cart.[1]

The railway was constructed by the Delhi-Umbala-Kalka Railway Company commencing in 1898.[1] The estimated cost of Rs 86,78,500, however, the cost doubled during execution of the project.[citation needed] The 96.54 km (60 mi) line was opened for traffic November 9, 1903.[1] Because of the high capital and maintenance cost, coupled with peculiar working conditions, the Kalka-Shimla Railway was allowed to charge fares that were higher than the prevailing tariffs on other lines. However, even this was not good enough to sustain the company and the Government had to purchase it on January 1, 1906 for Rs 1,71,07,748.

Ordinary local train halts at the Solan StationIn mid-August 2007, the government of Himachal Pradesh declared the railway a heritage property in preparation for its review in September.[2]

For about a week starting on September 11, 2007, an expert team from UNESCO was on a visit to the railway to review and inspect the railway for possible selection as a World Heritage Site. On July 7th 2008, the Kalka-Shimla Railway was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. made it the fourth railway property in India to be decalerd so. Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, Nilgiri Mountain Railway and Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai have already been declared as world heritage properties.

Route
The Kalka-Shimla Railway was built to connect Shimla, the summer capital of India during the British Raj, with the Indian rail system. Now, Shimla is the capital city of Himachal Pradesh and Kalka is a town in the Panchkula district of Haryana. Spectacular scenery along the whole route, and the marvels of its construction, keeps the traveler on this line spell bound. On leaving Kalka, 656 meters (2,152 ft) above sea level, the railway enters the foothills and immediately commences its climb.

Kalka Railway Station
Stations
The route offers a panoramic feast of the picturesque Himalayas from the shivalik foot hills at Kalka to several important points such as Dharampur, Solan, Kandaghat, Taradevi, Barog, Salogra, Summerhill and Shimla at an altitude of 2,076 meters (6,811 ft).

Engineering

A typical passenger train on one of the line's big bridgesThe Kalka Shimla Railway runs through 103 tunnels (one is not in use; so only 102 in service). The longest tunnel is at Barog, and is named after the engineer in charge of construction. The tunnel which is 1143.61-metre-long, and passes through fissured sandstone, has an interesting and tragic story associated with its construction. Barog, the engineer in charge, committed the mistake of digging the tunnel from both ends of the hill. The ends of the tunnels could not meet due to mistake in alignment. It is said that a fine of Re 1 was laid on him by the British authorities, for wasting government money in the tunnel. The British engineer could not digest this humiliation and during a walk along with his pet dog, shot himself in sheer desperation. He killed himself near what now is the state government-run Barog Pine Wood Hotel. It is said that his dog upon seeing his master bleeding profusely ran in panic to a village, near the present Barog railway station, for help. However, by the time people reached the spot, Barog had breathed his last. His tunnel was abandoned, and a second tunnel was constructed one kilometre away under the supervision the Chief Engineer, H.S. Harrington. Harrington had the assistance of Bhalku, a man from Jhaja, near Chail, who possessed natural engineering skills and is believed to have helped the British engineers bore other tunnels on the railway. Bhalku is regarded as a local saint, and apparently received a gold medal for his role in construction of the railway.

The line has 864 bridges, one of which is a 18.29 metre (60 ft) plate girder span and steel truss. The others are viaducts with multi-arched galleries like the ancient Roman aqueducts. Bridge No. 493, historically known as the "Arch Gallery", situated between Kandaghat and Kanoh stations, is an arch bridge in three stages, constructed with stone masonry. Bridge No. 226; between Sonwara and Dharampur is an arch gallery bridge having 5 tier galleries of multiple spans, constructed with stone masonry and bridging a deep valley surrounded by high peaks.

The railway has a ruling gradient of 1 in 33 or 3%. It has 919 curves, the sharpest being 48 degrees (a radius of 37.47 m or 122.93 feet). Climbing from 656 meters (2,152 ft), the line terminates at an elevation of 2,076 meters (6,811 ft) at Shimla. The line originally used 42lb/yd rail but this was later relaid to 60lb/yd rail.[1]

Locomotives
The first locomotives to arrive were two class "B" 0-4-0ST from the famous Darjeeling Himalayan Railway. These were built as 2 ft (610 mm) gauge engines, but were converted to 2 ft 6 in (762 mm) gauge in 1901. They were not large enough for the job, and were sold on in 1908. They were followed by 10 engines with a 0-4-2T wheel arrangement of a slightly larger design, introduced in 1902. These locos weighed 21.5 tons (21.85 tonnes), and had 30" (762 mm) driving wheels, and 12"x16" (304.8 mm x 406.4 mm) cylinders. They were later classified into the "B" class by the North Western State Railways. All these locos were constructed by the British firm of Sharp Stewart.[6]

Larger locomotives were introduced in the form of an 2-6-2T, of which 30 were built with slight variations between 1904 and 1910. Built by the Hunslet and the North British Locomotive Company, these locomotives were about 35 tons (35.56 tonnes), with 30" (762 mm) drivers and 14"x16" (355.6 mm x 406.4 mm) cylinders. These locomotives, later classed K and K2 by the North Western State Railways, subsequently handled the bulk of the railways traffic during the steam era. A pair of Kitson-Meyer 2-6-2+2-6-2 articulated locomotives, classed TD, were supplied in 1928. They quickly fell into disfavour, as it often took all day for enough freight to be assembled to justify operating a goods train hauled by one of these locos. Shippers looking for a faster service started to turn to road transport. These 68 ton (69.09 tonnes) locomotives were soon transferred to the Kangra Valley Railway, and subsequently ended up converted to 1,000 mm (3 ft 3⅜ in) gauge in Pakistan.

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Source :- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalka-Shimla_Railway

Nilgiri Mountain Steam Railway (India)

2009-01-30T18:21:00.001+05:30

The Nilgiri Mountain Railway (NMR) connects the town of Mettupalayam with the hill station of Udagamandalam (Ooty), in the Nilgiri Hills of southern India. Both towns are in the state of Tamil Nadu. It is the only rack railway in India, and uses the Abt system.

The Nilgiri Mountain railway is one of the oldest mountain railways in India. Under consideration since 1845, the line was finally opened by the British in 1899, and was initially operated by the Madras Railway Company. The railway is one of the few in the world dependent on steam locomotives.[citation needed]

The Southern Railway India, in Tamil Nadu which operates the NMR, incurs an annual shortfall of Rs 4 crores, (~1 million USD). During the Centenary celebrations of Nilgiri Mountain Railway in 1999 Railway Minister Nitish Kumar announced that the line would soon be electrified.

In July 2005, UNESCO added the Nilgiri Mountain Railway as an extension to the World Heritage Site of Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, the site then became known as "Mountain Railways of India."[1] after it satisfied the necessary criteria, thus forcing abandonment of modernisation plans.

The NMR track is 1,000 mm (3 ft 3⅜ in) gauge and the railway is isolated from other narrow gauge lines.

Between Mettupalayam and Coonoor, the line uses the rack and pinion system to climb the steep gradient. On this rack section trains are operated by 'X' Class steam rack locomotives manufactured by the Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works of Winterthur in Switzerland. These steam locomotives can be used on any part of the line (either with or without the rack section), but the newer diesel locomotives can only operate on the upper section, between Coonoor and Udagamandalam The Steam Locomotives are always marshalled at the downhill (Mettupalayam) end of the train. The average gradient in this rack section is 1 in 24.5, with a maximum of 1 in 12. Between Coonoor and Udagamandalam the train is operated by a YDM4 diesel locomotive using conventional rail adhesion principles. On this section the locomotive is always at the Coonoor end of the train as although the line is not steep enough to need a rack rail, the ruling gradient out of Coonoor is still very steep at 1 in 25.

As of 2007, there is one train a day over the rack section, which starts from Mettupalayam at 7.10 AM reaches Ooty at noon. The return train starts from Ooty at 3 PM, and reaches Mettupalayam at 6.35 PM. The train is scheduled to connect to the Nilgiri Express, which travels from Mettupalayam to Chennai. A summer special service is also run during the months of April and May, starting from Mettupalayam at 9.30 AM and from Ooty at 12.15 PM. Between Coonoor and Udagamandalam there are four daily trains each way.
Even though the NMR stations have networked computerised ticketing systems for onward journeys, it still issues old style manual tickets for the Ooty-Mettupalayam journey to preserve the World Heritage Site status of the railway. However, Ticket booking is similar to other conventional trains and can also be done via the Indian Railways' website. It is advisable to book tickets for this railway in advance, especially during peak season.

The majority of repairs to the locomotives are carried out at the Coonoor shed but many of the steam locomotives have been rebuilt at the Golden Rock Workshops. Carriages are repaired at Mettupalayam but, like the locomotives, are taken to one of the big railway workshops for major work. Due to its popularity, a number of passengers using the NMR have requested that the Southern Railways should covert the section from Coonoor to Udagamandalam to steam locomotive, as well as the section from Mettupalayam to Coonoor.

The train covers a distance of 46 km (28 miles), travels through 208 curves, 16 tunnels, and 250 bridges. The uphill journey takes around 290 minutes (4.8 hours), and the downhill journey takes 215 minutes (3.6 hours)

A excited crowd receives the Nilgiri Mountain Train at the Ooty stationMettupalayam - 0km, 1069ft above sea level - Junction with the Broad Gauge line from Coimbatore. Passengers cross the platform to the Nilgiri train. There is a small locomotive shed here and the carriage workshops for the line.
Leaving Mettupalayum, the line is adhesion worked and actually drops for a short distance before crossing the River Bhavaani, after which it starts to climb gently.
Kallar - 8km, 1260ft - Closed as a passenger station, this is where the rack rail begins. As the train leaves the station, the gradient is 1 in 12.
Adderly - 13km, 2390ft - Closed as a passenger station but is still a water stop.

Journey by the NMR provides spectacular views of the Nilgiri HillsHillgrove - 18km, 3580ft - Block post and water stop, also has refreshments for passengers.
Runneymede - 21km, 4612ft - Closed as a passenger station but is still a water stop.
Kateri Road - 25km, 5070ft - Closed as a passenger station, trains do not stop here.
Coonoor - 28km, 5616ft - main intermediate station on the line at site of the locomotive workshops as well as the top end of the rack rail. Trains must reverse a short distance before continuing their climb to Ooty. It is normal for the locomotive to be changed here with diesel traction, being normal for all trains to Ooty.
Wellington - 29km, 5804ft
Aruvankadu - 32km, 6144ft
Ketti - 38km, 6864ft
Lovedale - 42km, 7694ft

The Lovedale railway stationFrom a short distance before Lovedale, the line descends into Ooty.
Ooty - 46km, 7228ft (2200 m).

Dream Destination 1 :- Seychelles

2009-01-30T17:47:00.004+05:30

Seychelles , officially the Republic of Seychelles (French: République des Seychelles; Creole: Repiblik Sesel), is an archipelago nation of 115 islands in the Indian Ocean, some 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) east of mainland Africa, northeast of the island of Madagascar. Other nearby island countries and territories include Zanzibar to the west, Mauritius and Réunion to the south, Comoros and Mayotte to the southwest, and the Suvadives of the Maldives to the northeast. Seychelles has the smallest population of any state in Africa.

An island nation, the Seychelles is located in the northeast of Madagascar and about 1,600 km (1,000 mi) east of Kenya. The number of islands in the archipelago is often given as 115 but the Constitution of the Republic of Seychelles lists 155. The islands as per the Constitution are divided into various groups as follows.

There are 42 granitic islands, in descending order of size: Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette, La Digue, Curieuse, Félicité, Frégate, St. Anne, North, Cerf, Marianne, Grand Sœur,Thérèse, Aride, Conception,Petite Sœur, Cousin, Cousine, Long, Récif, Round (Praslin), Anonyme, Mamelles, Moyenne, Ile aux Vaches Marines, L'Islette, Beacon (Ile Sèche), Cachée, Cocos, Round (Mahé), L'Ilot Frégate, Booby, Chauve Souris (Mahé),Chauve Souris (Praslin), Ile La Fouche, Hodoul, L'Ilot, Rat, Souris, St. Pierre (Praslin),Zavé, Harrison Rocks (Grand Rocher).

There are two coral sand cays north of the granitics: Denis, Bird.

There are two coral islands south of the granitics: Coëtivy, Platte.

There are 29 coral islands in the Amirantes group, west of the granitics: Desroches, Poivre Atoll (comprising 3 islands : Poivre, Florentin and South Island), Alphonse, D'Arros, St. Joseph Atoll (comprising 14 islands: St. Joseph Ile aux Fouquets, Ressource, Petit Carcassaye, Grand Carcassaye, Benjamin, Bancs Ferrari, Chiens, Pélicans, Vars, Ile Paul, Banc de Sable, Banc aux Cocos and Ile aux Poules), Marie Louise, Desnoeufs, African Banks (comprising 2 islands: African Banks and South Island), Rémire, St. François, Boudeuse, Etoile, Bijoutier.

There are 13 coral islands in the Farquhar Group, south-south west of the Amirantes: Farquhar Atoll (comprising 10 islands: Bancs de Sable Déposés Ile aux Goëlettes Lapins Ile du Milieu North Manaha South Manaha Middle Manaha North Island and South Island), Providence Atoll (comprising two islands: Providence and Bancs Providence) and St Pierre.

There are 67 raised coral islands in the Aldabra Group, west of the Farquhar Group: Aldabra Atoll (comprising 46 islands: Grande Terre, Picard, Polymnie, Malabar, Ile Michel, Ile Esprit, Ile aux Moustiques, Ilot Parc, Ilot Emile, Ilot Yangue, Ilot Magnan, Ile Lanier, Champignon des Os, Euphrate, Grand Mentor, Grand Ilot, Gros Ilot Gionnet, Gros Ilot Sésame, Heron Rock, Hide Island, Ile aux Aigrettes, Ile aux Cèdres, Iles Chalands, Ile Fangame, Ile Héron, Ile Michel, Ile Squacco, Ile Sylvestre, Ile Verte, Ilot Déder, Ilot du Sud, Ilot du Milieu, Ilot du Nord, Ilot Dubois, Ilot Macoa, Ilot Marquoix, Ilots Niçois, Ilot Salade, Middle Row Island, Noddy Rock, North Row Island, Petit Mentor, Petit Mentor Endans, Petits Ilots, Pink Rock and Table Ronde), Assumption, Astove and Cosmoledo Atoll (comprising 19 islands: Menai, Ile du Nord (West North), Ile Nord-Est (East North), Ile du Trou, Goëlettes, Grand Polyte, Petit Polyte, Grand Ile (Wizard), Pagode, Ile du Sud-Ouest (South), Ile aux Moustiques, Ile Baleine, Ile aux Chauve-Souris, Ile aux Macaques, Ile aux Rats, Ile du Nord-Ouest, Ile Observation, Ile Sud-Est and Ilot la Croix).

Source:- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seychelles

So what are u waiting for lets visit....................

Dreams-- My Country India-- Republic day

2009-01-26T23:28:00.000+05:30

This presentation named as "Incredible India" is about how India is been evolved from past. The movie is also filled with more patriotic feelings .... YOU see everything you want to know about India (History, culture, Technology, Festivals, Economy and all).

India, always warm and inviting, is a place of infinite variety - one that favors you with a different facet of its fascination every time you come on a visit.

Today is our Republic day

Republic Day (India)

Although India obtained its independence on August 15, 1947, it did not yet have a permanent constitution; instead, its laws were based on the modified colonial Government of India Act 1935, and the country was a Dominion, with George VI as head of state and Earl Mountbatten as Governor General. On August 29, 1947, the Drafting Committee was appointed to draft a permanent constitution, with Dr. Ambedkar as the Chairman. A Draft Constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the Assembly on November 4, 1947. The Assembly met, in sessions open to public, for 166 days, spread over a period of 2 years, 11 months and 18 days before adopting the Constitution. After many deliberations and some modifications, the 308 members of the Assembly signed two hand-written copies of the document (one each in Hindi and English) on January 24, 1950. Two days later, the Constitution of India became the law of all the Indian lands. The Constitution of India came into effect only on January 26, 1950. Following January 26, 1950, Rajendra Prasad was elected as the president of India.

Dream Trains 2-- Deccan Odyssey - Luxury Train

2009-01-23T11:21:00.001+05:30

Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation Ltd in association with Indian Railways - Ministry of Tourism has launched a Super Deluxe luxury train "The Deccan Odyssey". The train has been benchmarked against the best luxury trains in the world like the Blue Train of South Africa, The Orient Express of Europe and the Eastern and Oriental of South East Asia.

The Deccan Odyssey's sheer luxury is a sight to behold. Everything in the train reflects the ways of Indian Royalty. The plush interiors, an awesome cuisine and grate sites to see makes the journey memorable. This luxurious train transports its guests on a remarkable sojourn of a land shining in legions grandeur - serene beaches, magnificent forts - palaces and experiencing divine tales etched in colossal rocks. A weeklong royal journey is through some of the best places in Maharashtra namely Mumbai, Ganapatipule, Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg, Tarkarli, Sawantwadi, Goa, Kolhapur, Aurangabad, Ellora, Ajanta and Nasik. The objective of running "The Deccan Odyssey" train is primarily to showcase the best of tourism assets of Maharashtra like pristine beauty of Konkan coast, the art, the culture, the heritage of Maharashtra (including world heritage sites of Ajanta - Ellora), as well as Maharashtra's local arts, crafts and cuisine.

The train has 21 coaches, out of which 13 are passenger cars accommodating 8 people per coach (11 passenger Cars, 4 coupes per coach - 2 Presidential Suite Cars, 2 coupes per coach), 1 Conference Car, 2 Dinning Cars, 2 Generator Cars with Luggage Store, 1 Staff, spare Car, 1 Spa Car, 1 Bar Car. The train has on-board facilities like T.V., Cable connection with central audio disc player, cell phones, Channel Music, Foreign exchange facilities, etc. The present capacity of the train is 80 pax

The itinerary of the tour is broadly as follows:
1st Day - Mumbai
2nd Day- Ratnagiri-Ganapatipule-Sawantwadi
3rd Day - Sindhudurg-Tarkarli
4th Day - Goa
5th Day - Kolhapur- New Palace, Museum, Bhavani Mandap Mahalaxmi Temple - Shalini Palace.
6th Day - Aurangabad-Daulatabad-Ellora Caves-Bibi-ka-Maqbara
7th Day - Jalgaon Ajanta Caves-Nasik-Panchawati Ghat
8th Day - Mumbai.

Enjoy the ride....

Source:-

http://www.maharashtratourism.gov.in/mtdc/HTML/DO/DefaultDO.aspx?strpage=About_deccanodyssey.html

www.BestDestination.com

Dreram Trains 1-- Great Brazil Express

2009-01-23T10:59:00.003+05:30

Great Brazil Express is a new and unique luxury train trip in Brazil. Great Brazil Express offers an exclusive tour, in which you are treated as a VIP client during the whole journey from Rio de Janeiro to the waterfalls of Foz do Iguaçu or vice versa. Prices start at $3500.

Source:-http://www.greatbrazilexpress.com/