to learn (सीखना)

to know (जानना)

to kiss (चूमना)

to kill (मारना)

to keep (रखना)

to increase (बढ़ाना)

to help (मदद)

to hear (सुनना)

to give (देना)

to forget (भूलना)

to desire (चाहना)

to defeat (हराना)

to cry (रोना)

to cook (खाना बनाना )

to come (आना)

to bring (लाना)

to become (बनना)

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बेचना (to sell)

देखना (to see)

खोजना (to search)

कहना (to say)

बचाना (to save)

बुनना (to roast)

घूमना (to resolve)

आराम करना (to relax)

पहचानना (to recognize)

पाना (to receive)

बनाना (to prepare)

खोलना (to open)

मिलना (to meet)

देखना (to look)

रहना (to live)

सुनना (to listen)

पसंद करना (to like)

लेटना (to lie down)

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काम करना (to work)

चाहना (to wish)

जीतना (to win)

स्वागत करना (to welcome)

पहनना (to wear)

धोना (to wash)

जागना (to wake up)

प्रतीक्षा करना (to wait)

समझना (to understand)

छुना (to touch)

सोचना (to think)

बताना or कहना (to tell)

सिखाना (to teach)

पढ़ना (to study)

रुकना (to stop)

ठहरना (to stay)

निकलना (to start)

बिताना (to spend)

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Here is an example with the verb “to go”

I used to go (masculine) : मैं जाता था

I used to go (feminine) : मैं जाती थी

We used to go (masculine) : हम जाते थे

We used to go (feminine) : हम जाती थीं

You used to go (to a person of lower status)(masculine) : तू जाता था

You used to go (to a person of lower status)(feminine) : तू जाती थी

You used to go (to a person of the same status)(masculine) : तुम जाते थे

You used to go (to a person of the same status)(feminine) : तुम जाती थीं

You used to go (to a person of higher status)(masculine) : आप जाते थे

You used to go (to a person of higher status)(feminine) : आप जाती थीं

He used to go : वह जाता था

She used to go : वह जाती थी

They used to go (masculine) : वे जाते था

They used to go (feminine) : वे जाती थीं

So to form the past imperfect, take the stem of the verb and attach it to either ता (if the pronoun is singular, masculine), ते (plural, masculine), or ती (feminine, singular, plural). Then you’ll need an auxliliary verb depending on whether the pronoun is masculine, singular (था), feminine, singular (थी), and so on.

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1 - नाई (barber)

2 - लुहार (blacksmith)

3 - बढ़ई (carpenter)

4 - कारीगर (craftsman)

5 - फोटोग्राफर (photographer)

6 - प्रधान मंत्री (prime minister)

7 - विक्रेता (salesman)

8 - वैज्ञानिक (scientist)

9 - दुकानदार (shopkeeper)

10 - गायक or गायिका (singer)

11 - सिपाही (soldier)

12 - विद्यार्थी (student)

13 - दर्ज़ी (tailor)

14 - अद्यापक or शिक्षक (teacher)

15 - लेखक (writer)

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1 - लेखाकार (accountant)

2 - अभिनेता (actor)

3 - अभिनेत्री (actress)

4 - लिपिक (clerk)

5- रसोइया (cook)

6 - दंत चिकित्सक (dentist)

7 - डाक्टर (doctor)

8 - इंजीनियर (engineer)

9 - किसान (farmer)

10 - पत्रकार (journalist)

11 - न्यायाधीश (judge)

12 - वकील (lawyer)

13 - गायक or गायिका (musician)

14 - नर्स (nurse)

15 - कवि (poet)

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चपाती is a thin type of bread made from flour, water and salt. Very little if not any yeast is used in चपाती. The dough is flattened until it is very thin and heated on a skillet. Then some ghii (घी) or butter is spread over the bread. The चपाती is usually used to scoop up some of the meat and vegetables of a dish. Sometimes it is used as a sponge to absorb some of the liquid of the dish. रोटी is a little different in that रोटी tends to be a bread that is thicker than चपाती. रोटी and चपाती are virtually identical in appearance.

पराँठा is a type of bread filled with vegetables and cheese. The dough is created first and then the fillings are placed inside. Then the ends are closed and the पराँठा is fried with cooking oil. पराँठा breads are thick and several layers can be found when you open the bread. Sometimes पराँठा is prepared without anything inside. The पराँठा is served plain and lathered with buter and sometimes consumed with some tea or milk.

नान is a bread that contains yeast. The dough is made up of milk, yogurt, cumin and nigella seeds, white flour and salth. After the dough has been kneaded, the dough is left to rise. When it rises the dough is divided into balls that are flatened. Then they are baked in an oven. Sometimes नान is dipped in soup and sometimes it is consumed with the toppings layered on top of the नान.

पूरी is a bread prepared with some salt and whole wheat flour. When पूरी is fried with some butter, the bread starts to rise. After the bread turns golden brown it is left to cool. The final product of the bread will have a bulky shape to it. पूरी is served with some lentil soup for breakfast or as a snack. Sometimes पूरी is also served as a ceremonial offering to the gods.

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Anyway, there are six main events observed throughout the Diwali celebrations. All these days are celebrated according to the Hindu calendar. The first day is where the cow is worshipped. The second day is when people buy new utensils. The third day is when Hindus rise before the crack of dawn to take an oil bath and wear new clothes. Lamps are lighted and the Goddess Lakshmi is worshiped on the fourth day. The fifth day is when the men present gift to their wives. The fifth day represents the triumph of Krishna’s victory over the demon Bali. The sixth day is a day recognizing the special bond between brothers and sisters. This day is in honor of the God Yam (lord of death) and his sister.

In southern India, especially in Andhra Pradesh, firecrackers are lit and gifts of sweets are given to the children. The women of the house also create Kolams, which is a form of sandpainting done by rice powder. It’s thought that making these floor paintings near the entrance of the home will bring prosperity to the household. In Gujarat, since Diwali is considered the last day before the start of a new year on the Hindu calender, neighbors give gifts of fresh fruit and go to the temple to pray. Some people go to the temple to protect themselves against black magic.

In Bombay the traders do not make any payments in the Bombay Stock Exchange, but a token bidding is performed. In Bengal, people light candles in memory of their deceased ancestors. In Goa, berries are crushed with one’s bare feet to symbolize the killing of Narakasura. Next year the Diwali celebrations will fall around November 5th on the solar calendar. I encourage everyone to make an effort to take a trip to India and experience the bright and interesting cultural celebrations that India has to offer. Maybe I’ll see some of you there next year!

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Jainists believe that Lord Mahavira (महावीर) was one of the last sages who had attained nirvana (निर्वाण) or enlightenment on Diwali. Lord Mahavira is considered one of the foremost Tirthankar (तीर्थंकर) (or teachers who have achieved enlightenment) responsible for establishing the dharma (धर्म). Jainists try to follow Lord Mahavira’s path to enlightenment by observing the holiday with an ascetic focus.

The festival of Diwali contain several significant events for the Sikhs. The Sikhs celebrate the release of the founder of Sikhism, Guru Nanak’s (गुरु नानक देव) release from prison. The Sikhs also celebrate the release of Guru Harobind Ji, the sixth guru. According to the story, The Mughal Emperor Jahangir agreed to let Guru Harobind Ji and whoever could hold unto the Guru’s cloak, go free. Guru Harobind made a large cloak with 52 tassels. Each prince was able to hold unto the tassels and leave the prison. Diwali is also associated with the martydom of Sikh scholar Bhai Mani Singh, who was executed for encouraging the Sikhs to not pay a tax to a government bent on killing Sikhs.

For Hindus Diwali is associated with Lakshmi Puja or Lakshmi worship. Lakshmi is the goddess symbolizing wealth and prosperity. In order to attract the goddess to one’s home (and therefore attract wealth and prosperity) the Rangoli is left at the doorstep. Rangoli is a form of sand painting that uses finely grounded powder. The house must also be clean, because it is believed that Lakshmi will only visit a household that is industrious and clean. Water, nuts, fruits and flowers are left for Lakshmi. In the evening lights are lit so that the goddess can find her way to her worshippers’ houses.

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She is a girl (वह लड़की है) [present tense see Aug 20]

They are writing a letter (masculine) (वे हिंदी पत्र लिख रहे हैं) [present continuous tense - Sept 4]

You fell (feminine) (To fall = गिरना) (आप गिर ईं) [Simple past tense - Sept 10]

We had slept (masculine) (हम सोए थे) [Past perfect - Oct 15]

He walked [to walk = चलना] (वह चला)

I am eating (feminine) (मैं खा रहा हूँ)

They went home (masculine). (Home = घर) (वे घर गए)

You will see (masculine) (आप देखेंगे)

We were (feminine) (हम थे)

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