“‘[H]eaven was opened, the Holy Spirit descended in bodily shape like a dove’ (Luke 3:21-22). Why like a dove? For the grace of the washing requires simplicity, so that we may be ‘innocent like doves’ (Matt. 10:16). The grace of the washing requires peace, as in an earlier image the dove brought to the ark that which alone was inviolable by the flood (Gen. 8:10-11)…In that branch, in that ark, was the image of peace and of the church. In the midst of the floods of the world the Holy Spirit brings its fruitful peace to its church.

David too taught [about] the sacrament of baptism…with the Spirit of prophecy, [saying,] ‘Who will give me wings like a dove?’…

Because the Father did not wear a body,…the Father wished to prove to us that he is present in the Son, saying, ‘You are my beloved Son. In you I am well pleased’ (Luke 3:22). If you wish to learn that the Son is always present with the Father, read the voice of the Son saying, ‘If I go up into heaven, you are there. If I go down into the grace, you are present there’ (Ps. 139:8).”

Ambrose (ca. 333-397 AD) was the bishop of Milan, as well as Augustine’s teacher. He is most well known for his defense of the Holy Spirit as a divine part of the Trinity.

There are seven times in the Gospel of John where “Jesus saw” something which led Him to action. First, when Jesus saw the two disciples mentioned in our text, He invited them to come with Him, and their lives were changed forever. Then, the next day “Jesus saw Nathanael” (John 1:47) and also called him as one of the twelve disciples.

At the pool of Bethesda in Jerusalem, there was a man who had been crippled for 38 years. But “when Jesus saw him” (John 5:6), He healed him and made him whole. Back in Galilee, as He was teaching His disciples, “Jesus . . . saw a great company come unto him” (John 6:5), and this soon led to the great miracle of the feeding of 5,000 men with just five loaves and two small fishes.

Another great miracle took place, presumably in Jerusalem. As He was passing by, “Jesus . . . saw a man which was blind from his birth” (John 9:1) and proceeded to open his eyes. At the small town of Bethany, a close friend of Jesus named Lazarus was worse than blind–he was dead! His two sisters, Mary and Martha, along with many friends, were mourning bitterly when Jesus finally came. But “when Jesus therefore saw . . . |Mary| weeping” (John 11:33), He also wept and then called for Lazarus, already dead for four days, to come forth alive from the grave, and he came!

Then, at the cross as He was being crucified, His own mother was there, as well as His beloved disciple John. “When Jesus therefore saw his mother” (John 19:26), He commissioned John to care for her after He was gone.

Our Lord Jesus does see us, and sees our needs, and He does care. And there is a soon-coming day when He “shall wipe away all tears from |our| eyes” (Revelation 21:4).

The Greek NT is abundant and sufficient to convey just the shade of meaning the author desires. For example, the NT uses two difference words for “another” (another of the same, or another of a different kind), and several words for various kinds of knowledge. Significantly, some words are omitted that were commonly employed in the Hellenistic culture of that time.

Moreover, Greek words often took on new meanings in the context of the gospel, arising from a combination of new teachings with an exalted morality. The writers did not hesitate to use such words as life, death, glory, and wrath in new ways to express new thoughts. Sometimes the literal meaning of a word almost disappears, as when the authors use water, washing, and baptism for Christi’s spiritually purifying power. NT vocabulary also contains words found elsewhere only in the Greek OT, such as circumcision, idolatry, anathema, diaspora, and Pentecost. Loan words include alleluia and amen (Hebrew), and abba, mmmon, and corban (Aramaic).

For understanding the meaning of a NT word, then, a lexicon of classical Greek is essential but not sufficient. One must also know how the word is used in the Greek OT, in Hellenistic writings, and in the inscriptions and documents representing the language of everyday life. Papyrus documents provide many illustrations of the meaning of NT words. For example, the Greek word for “contribution” (“collection,” 1 Cor. 16:1 NIV), at one time thought limited to the NT, is commonly used with the same meaning in the papyri. Many Greek words once defined on the basis of classical Greek have been given sharper meaning in the light of their use in the papyri.

This chart shows the name of the letter in English, the letter in lowercase, the name of the letter in Greek, the letter capitalized, and its pronunciation.

Grammar

As in other Indo-European languages, the meaning of Greek words is affected by the addition and alteration of various prefixes and suffixes (the process known as “inflection”). Although its system of inflection was simplified compared to classical Greek, NT Greek was more inflected than many languages. Greek meaning is thus much less susceptible to ambiguity than English.

In contrast to Hebrew, Greek has a neuter gender as well as masculine and feminine. The many precise Greek prepositions are subtle, having various meanings depending on their context. NT Greek uses only about half of the particles used in classical Greek.

The Greek verb system, much more complicated than Hebrew’s, is capable of nuances of meaning difficult to express even in English. Each Greek verb has five aspects, which grammarians call tense, mood, voice, person, and number.

(1) Tense. Greek verb tense deals primarily with kind of action, rather than time of action as in English. In Greek there are three basic kinds of action: durative, expressed by the present, imperfect, and (sometimes) future tenses; simple or punctiliar, expressed by the aorist and (often) future tenses (aorist refers to uncompleted past action); and completed, expressed by the perfect tense (results of past action continue into the present) and pluperfect tense (results are confined to the past). Greek tenses are often hard to translate into English; the time of action as well as the verb stem’s basic meaning (e.g. whether it takes an object) must be subtly blended with the action-type into a single idea.

(2) Mood. The mood shows how a verb’s action should be understood. Is the action real? (Use the indicative mood.) Is the action demanded by someone? (Use the imperative mood.) Does the action depend on other conditions? (Use the subjunctive or optative mood.) Is the action basically descriptive of another substantive? (Use a participle.) Is the action basically substantive? (Use an infinitive.) In grammar, a substantive is a word or group of words functioning as a noun; the last two examples are not strictly moods, but they are used that way by grammarians. Moods give Greek writers a rich choice of verbal expression.

(3) Voice. A verb’s voice describes whether action is directed outward (active), inward (middle), or back upon the sentence’s subject (passive).

(4) Person. The person of a verb tells who is doing the acting, whether I (first person), you (second person), or another (third person).

(5) Number. Verb number shows whether the action is performed by one person (singular) or more than one (plural).

Style

The NT contains a variety of writing styles in its use of Greek. The Gospels especially exhibit Semitic features. Matthew uses a style less picturesque than Mark’s, and in some respects close to the style of Luke, Acts, Hebrew, James, and 1 Peter. Luke’s style varies from both Mark and Matthew’s in its elegance. The rather simple style of John contains many Semitisms.

Among Paul’s letters, differences of style have been noted. The least literary and most direct in expression are his letters to the Thessalonians. The Pastorals (1, 2 Timothy; Titus) have a style nearer to the koine than much NT writing, not so Jewish, and not so much influenced by the Septuagint as his other letters.

Hebrews combines stylistic elegance and Jewish-Greek. James’ letter, thought high in cultural quality, is not as sensitive in style as Hebrews. Less elegant is 1 Peter, which is strongly influenced by the Septuagint and thus reflects Semitic style.

Jude contains elevated, somewhat ponderous diction and shows the influence of Jewish style. Resembling Jude in its high style, 2 Peter is even more influenced by the Septuagint.

Revelation has a generally simple style but shows considerable Semitic influence in its use of parallelism and redundance. Linguistic scholars have identified a number of apparent Greek grammatical mistakes in Revelation.

Conclusion

To Christians, the message conveyed by the Bible is simple and direct, yet capable of interacting with people in the most complex cultural circumstances. Although every human language has its limitations, the biblical languages have proved to be remarkably adequate vehicles for conveying God’s message in all its power and richness.

Greek was also characterized by strength and vigor. It was capable of variety and striking effects. Greek was a language of argument, with a vocabulary and style that could penetrate and clarify phenomena rather than simply tell stories. Classical Greek elaborately developed many forms from a few word roots. Its complex syntax allowed intricate word arrangements to express find nuances of meaning.

Ancient History

Although the antecedents of Greek are obscure, the first traces of what could be called ancient Greek appear in Mycenaen and Minoan documents. They contain three different scripts: Minoan hieroglyphic (the earliest), linear A, and linear B (the latest). Linear B is generally considered “pre-Greek.” The syllabic script of linear B is found on clay tablets discovered on the Greek mainland (1400-1200 BC).

Mycenaean civilization and script ended suddenly with the Dorian invasions (1200 BC). Writing seems to have disappeared for several centuries. Later, about the eighth century BC, Greek writing appeared in a different script, one based on an alphabet presumably borrowed from the Phoenicians and then adapted to Greek speech sounds and direction of writing. Greek was first written from right to left like the Western Semitic languages, then in a back-and-forth pattern, and finally from left to right. Several dialects appeared during the archaic period (eighth to sixth centuries BC): Dorian, Ionian, Achaean, and Aeolic.

During the classical period (fifth to fourth centuries BC), Greek culture reached its literary and artistic zenith. Classical (or Attic) Greek was characterized by subtlety of syntax, flexibility, and an expressive use of particles (short, uninflected parts of speech, often untranslatable). As the city of Athens attained cultural and political control, the Attic dialect also gained in prestige. With the Macedonian conquests, Attic Greek, combined with influences from other dialects (especially Ionic), became the international language of the eastern Mediterranean area.

Hellenism and the Koine Dialect

The conquests of Alexander the Great encouraged the spread of Greek language and culture. Regional dialects were largely replaced by Hellenistic or koine (everyday; Gk. “common”) Greek. That language is known through thousands of inscriptions reflecting all aspects of daily life. The koine dialect added many vernacular expressions to Attic Greek, thus making it more cosmopolitan. Simplifying the grammar also better adapted it to a worldwide culture. The new language, reflecting simple, popular speech, became the common language of commerce and diplomacy. The Greek language lost much of its elegance and finely shaded nuance as a result of its evolution from classical to koine. Nevertheless it retained its distinguishing characteristics of strength, beauty, clarity, and logical rhetorical power.

Septuagint

During the centuries immediately before Christ, the eastern Mediterranean had been undergoing not only Hellenization but also Semitization. Both influences can be observed in the Greek translation of the OT.

Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek was an epochal event. The Septuagint (earliest Greek translation of the Hebrew OT) later had a strong influence on Christian thought. A necessary consequence of Hebrew writers using the Greek language was that a Greek spirit and Greek forms of thought influenced Jewish culture. The Jews soon appropriated from the rich Greek vocabulary expressions for ideas that were beyond the scope of Hebrew terminology. Also, old Greek expressions acquired new meanings corresponding to Jewish conceptions.

The Greek OT has been very significant in the development of Christian thought. Often the usage of a Greek word in the Septuagint provides a key to its meaning in the NT. The OT dialect of “Jewish-Greek” is at times seen in NT passages translated very literally; at other times NT translation of OT texts is very loose.

New Testament Greek

Although most NT authors were Jewish, they wrote in Greek, the universal language of their time. In addition, the apostle John seems to have been acquainted with some Greek philosophy. John used “Word” (Gk. logos) in reference to Christ (John 1:1), and several other abstract expressions; John may have been influenced by the Egyptian center of Alexandria, where Greek philosophy and Hebrew learning had merged in a unique way.

Paul also was acquainted with Greek authors (Acts 17:28; 1 Cor. 15:33; Titus 1:12). Thus Greek orators and philosophers, as well as Hebrew prophets and scholars, influenced Paul’s language.

Exactly which dialect of Hebrew or Aramaic Jesus spoke is debated, but the fact remains that the Holy Spirit inspired the Gospels as Greek texts. The records in Greek of Jesus’ teaching and accomplishments prepared the way for the gospel to spread throughout a Greek-speaking culture.

The dignity and restraint of koine Greek used by Christian writers was neither so artificial and pedantic as some classical writings, nor so trivial and vulgar as spoken koine at times could be. Greek words took on richer, more spiritual meaning in the context of Scripture, influenced by the simplicity and rich vividness of Semitic style. The NT was not written in a peculiar “Holy Ghost” language (as some medieval scholars believed). Tens of thousands of papyri unearthed in Egypt in the twentieth century furnish lexical and grammatical parallels to biblical language and reveal that it was part of the linguistic warp and woof of that era. Yet NT Greek was nevertheless “free,” often creating its own idiom. Christian writers influenced Greek thought by introducing new expressions in order to convey their message about Jesus Christ.

Semitic Influence

Because NT Greek combines the directness of Hebrew thought with the precision of Greek expression, Greek’s subtle delicacy often interprets Hebrew concepts. The Semitic influence is strongest in the Gospels, Revelation, and James. Luke and Hebrews exhibit a more typical Greek style. The epistles blend the wisdom of Hebrew and the dialectic philosophy of Greek. Sermons combine the Hebrew prophetic message with Greek oratorical force.

In addition to direct quotes and allusions from the Septuagint, a pervasive Semitic influence on NT Greek has been noted in many areas. For example, the syntax contains many examples of Semitic style.

• It was to be kept from sunset to sunset (Lev. 23:32)
• No burden was to be carried (Jer. 17:21)
• No fire kindled (Ex. 35:3)
• No cooking done (Ex. 16:23)
• The penalty for doing any of these things during the Sabbath was death (Numbers 15)

When was the last time your “church” killed a congregant for doing any of the above? It has to be quite often. Responses would be greatly appreciated.