Balkans

The National Awakening of Macedonia

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Sun, 28 Feb 2010 03:27:15 PST

Map of Macedonia on the basis of earlier publication in the newspaper "Македонскi Голосъ" of the Saint Petersburg Macedonian Colony, 1913

Ottoman rule over the region was considered harsh. Several movements whose goals were the establishment of autonomous Macedonia, encompassing the entire region of Macedonia, began to arise in the late 1800s; the earliest of these was the Bulgarian Macedonian-Adrianople Revolutionary Committees, later transformed to SMORO. In 1905 it was renamed as Internal Macedonian-Adrianople Revolutionary Organization (IMARO) and after World War I the organization separated into the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) and the Internal Thracian Revolutionary Organisation (ITRO). The early organization did not proclaim any ethnic identities; it was officially open to "...uniting all the disgruntled elements in Macedonia and the Adrianople region, regardless of their nationality..."^[1] The majority of its members were however Slavic/Bulgarian-speakers.^[1] In 1903, IMRO organised the Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising against the Ottomans, which after some initial successes, including the forming of the "Krushevo Republic", was crushed with much loss of life. The uprising and the forming of the Krushevo Republic are considered the cornerstone and precursors to the eventual establishment of the Macedonian state.

Notes and references

^ M. Glenny, "The Balkans"

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Kosovo history

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Mon, 15 Feb 2010 23:36:34 PST

Kosovo as defined by UNSCR 1244

Kosovo's current status is the result of the turmoil of the disintegration of Yugoslavia, particularly the Kosovo War of 1998 to 1999, but it is suffused with issues dating back to the rise of nationalism in the Balkans during the last part of Ottoman rule in the 19th century, Albanian nationalism (centred around the claim that Kosovo was historically theirs due to alleged connections with the Illyrians) vs. Serbian nationalism (notably surrounding the Battle of Kosovo eponymous with the Kosovo region) in particular.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Greece history

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Wed, 13 Jan 2010 02:27:06 PST

The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens.

Greece was the first area in Europe where advanced early civilizations emerged, beginning with the Minoan civilization in Crete and then the Mycenean civilization on the mainland. Later, city-states emerged across the Greek peninsula and spread to the shores of the Black Sea, South Italy and Asia Minor reaching great levels of prosperity that resulted in an unprecedented cultural boom, expressed in architecture, drama, science and philosophy, and nurtured in Athens under a democratic environment.

Alexander the Great on his horse Bucephalus.

Athens and Sparta led the way in repelling the Persian Empire in a series of battles. Both were later overshadowed by Thebes and eventually Macedon, with the latter under the guidance of Alexander the Great uniting and leading the Greek world to victory over the Persians.

The Hellenistic era was brought only partially to a close two centuries later with the establishment of Roman rule over Greek lands in 146 BC.^[1] Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch, Seleucia and the many other new Hellenistic cities in Asia and Africa founded in Alexander's wake.^[2]

The Greek peninsula as a part of the Byzantine Empire in purple, c.1180, at the end of the Komnenian period.

The subsequent mixture of Roman and Hellenic cultures took form in the establishment of the Byzantine Empire in 330 AD around Constantinople. Byzantium remained a major cultural and military power for the next 1,123 years, until the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. On the eve of the Ottoman conquest, much of the Greek intelligentsia migrated to Italy and other parts of Europe not under Ottoman rule, playing a significant role in the Renaissance through the transmission of ancient Greek works to Western Europe.^[3] Nevertheless, the Ottoman millet system contributed to the cohesion of the Orthodox Greeks by segregating the various peoples within the empire based on religion, as the latter played an integral role in the formation of modern Greek identity.

After the Greek War of Independence, successfully waged against the Ottoman Empire from 1821 to 1829, the nascent Greek state was finally recognized under the London Protocol. In 1827, Ioannis Kapodistrias, from Ionian Islands, was chosen as the first governor of the new Republic. However, following his assassination, the Great Powers installed a monarchy under Otto, of the Bavarian House of Wittelsbach. In 1843, an uprising forced the King to grant a constitution and a representative assembly.

The destruction of the turkish flagship at Chios by Constantine Kanaris,during the Greek Revolution(1821-1830). Painted by Nikiphoros Lytras.

Due to his unimpaired authoritarian rule, he was eventually dethroned in 1863 and replaced by Prince Vilhelm (William) of Denmark, who took the name George I and brought with him the Ionian Islands as a coronation gift from Britain. In 1877, Charilaos Trikoupis, who is attributed with the significant improvement of the country's infrastructure, curbed the power of the monarchy to interfere in the assembly by issuing the rule of vote of confidence to any potential prime minister.

Notes

^ Alexander's Gulf outpost uncovered. BBC News. August 7, 2007.
^ "Growth of the Greek Colonies in the First Millenium BC (application/pdf Object)".
^ "Millennium issue: Trouble with Turkey The fall of Constantinople Economist.com". Economist.com. 1997-03-20.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Halay

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Fri, 11 Dec 2009 08:24:12 PST

Azerbaijani dancers performing Halay during Mugham Festival in Shaki, Azerbaijan.

Halay (Turkish: Halay, Assyrian: Khigga ܚܓܐ, Greek: Χαλάϊ, Kurdish: Gowend / Dîlan, Azerbaijan:Yalli) is a popular dance in the Middle East.

Halay is traditionally played on the zurna, supported by a davul, but in the recent years, electronic instruments have started to replace them. Typically, Halay dancers form a circle or a line, while holding each other with the little finger or shoulder to shoulder or even hand to hand with the last and first player holding a piece of cloth — usually called "mendil" (from Turkish). It is a national dance in Turkey and Armenia.

The initial form of which dates back to so many centuries long when it was held around a ceremony bonfire, having the meaning of hot, light and meal. The word “yal” means row, line of chain. The yalli dancers stand in one line or two rows and sometimes in some rows.

The yalli becoming traditional form existed in two forms; dancing and play yalli, but from time to time it was promoted and was enriched with new shades and as a result of which accepted new motions and reached our time.

The homeland of some kinds of yalli out of 100 is the ancient land Nakhchivan which is the inseperable part of Azerbaijan. The yalli forms considered our national heritage are follows: “Tanzara”, “Folk yalli”, “Gopu”, “Gazi-gazi”, “Hoynara”, “Sharur yalli”, “Four feet”, “Urfani”, “Arazi”, “Siyagutu”, “Khalafi”, “Ganimo”, “Nareyi”, “Galadan galaya”, “Three feet”, “Three steps”, “Kochdu balaban”, “Gulumeyi”, “Haghishda”, “Zari-zari” and others.

Halay in weddings

In many Turkish, Azerbaijani, Armenian, Assyrian, Kurdish, Syriac, Turkmen, Arabic, Persian, Albanian and Greek weddings, people dance Halay for hours. Every region has its own style and forms.

Union of Croatia with Hungary

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Thu, 12 Nov 2009 13:08:25 PST

Architecture of Medieval Croatia, Zadar

Following the extinction of the Croatian ruling dynasty in 1091, Ladislaus I of Hungary, the brother of Jelena Lijepa, the last Croatian queen, became the king of Croatia. Croatian nobility of the Littoral opposed this crowning, which led to 10 years of war and the recognition of the Hungarian ruler Coloman as the king of Croatia and Hungary in the treaty of 1102 (often referred to as the Pacta conventa). In return, Coloman promised to maintain Croatia as a separate kingdom, not to settle Croatia with Hungarians, to guarantee Croatia's self-governance under a Ban, and to respect all the rights, laws and privileges of the Croatian Kingdom. During this union, the Kingdom of Croatia never lost the right to elect its own king, had the ruling dynasty become extinct. In 1293 and 1403^[1] Croatia chose its own king, but in both cases the Kingdom of Hungary declared war and the union was reestablished.

For the next four centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia was ruled by the Sabor and Bans appointed by the Hungarian king. The Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia remained a legally distinct constitutional entity,^[2] but the advent of a Hungarian king brought about other consequences such as: the introduction of feudalism and the rise of native noble families such as the Frankopans and the Šubićs. The 1273 Congregatio Regni tocius Sclavonie Generalis, the oldest surviving document written by the Croatian parliament, dates from this period.^[3] Subsequent kings sought to restore some of their previously lost influence by granting certain privileges to towns.

In the late 15th century the Ottomans conquered Makarska

The first period of personal union between Croatia and Hungary ended in 1526 with the Battle of Mohács and the defeat of Hungarian forces by the Ottomans. After the death of King Louis II, Croatian nobles at the Cetingrad assembly chose the Habsburgs as new rulers of the Kingdom of Croatia, under the condition that they provide the troops and finances required to protect Croatia against the Ottoman Empire.^[3]^[4]

References

^ Kako je Ladislav prodao Dalmaciju
^ Michigan state university libraries-Steven W. Sowards:25 lectures on modern Balkan history
^ History of Croatian parliament on Croatian
^ Milan Kruhek: Cetin, grad izbornog sabora Kraljevine Hrvatske 1527, Karlovačka Županija, 1997, Karlovac

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Turkey and Serbia for the Balkan stability

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Sun, 25 Oct 2009 21:58:16 PDT

Turkish President Abdullah Gul will pay an official visit to Serbia on Sunday to seek cooperation with the country in maintaining stability in the Balkan region, Turkey's Presidential Press Center announced Saturday.

Turkey considers Serbia a key country in the Balkans with a leading role in regional stability and the two presidents will discuss opportunities to work together for tranquillity, stability and welfare in the Balkans, said the center in a statement.

The visit will boost political, economic and commercial ties between Turkey and Serbia, with a business delegation to accompany Gul and various economic deals to be inked, said the statement.

Gul and his Serbian counterpart Boris Tadic are expected to review Turkish-Serbian relations and exchange views on regional and daily problems, according to the statement.

Gul's visit, which is upon the invitation by Tadic, will be the first official visit of a Turkish president to Belgrade since 1986. (China View)

The First Bulgarian Empire

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 18:36:48 PDT

In 632 the Bulgars, originally from Central Asia, formed under the leadership of Khan Kubrat an independent state that became known as Great Bulgaria. Its territory extended from the lower course of the Danube to the west, the Black Sea and the Azov Sea to the south, the Kuban River to the east, and the Donets River to the north.[1] Pressure from the Khazars led to the subjugation of Great Bulgaria in the second half of the 7th century. Kubrat’s successor, Khan Asparuh, migrated with some of the Bulgar tribes to the lower courses of the rivers Danube, Dniester and Dniepr (known as Ongal), and conquered Moesia and Scythia Minor (Dobrudzha) from the Byzantine Empire, expanding his new khanate further into the Balkan Peninsula.[2] A peace treaty with Byzantium in 681 and the establishment of the Bulgar capital of Pliska south of the Danube mark the beginning of the First Bulgarian Empire. At the same time one of Asparuh's brothers, Kuber, settled with another Bulgar group in present-day[update] Macedonia.[3]

Ruins of Pliska, capital of the First Bulgarian Empire from 680 to ca. 890

During the siege of Constantinople in 717–718 the Bulgarian ruler Khan Tervel honoured his treaty with the Byzantines by sending troops to help the populace of the imperial city. According to the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes, in the decisive battle the Bulgarians killed 22,000 Arabs, thereby eliminating the threat of a full-scale Arab invasion into Eastern and Central Europe.[4]

The influence and territorial expansion of Bulgaria increased further during the rule of Khan Krum,[5] who in 811 won a decisive victory against the Byzantine army led by Nicephorus I in the Battle of Pliska.[6]

In 864, Bulgaria under Boris I The Baptist accepted Eastern Orthodox Christianity.[7]

Bulgaria became a major European power in the ninth and the tenth centuries, while fighting with the Byzantine Empire for the control of the Balkans. This happened under the rule (852–889) of Boris I. During his reign, the Cyrillic alphabet developed in Preslav and Ohrid,[8] adapted from the Glagolitic alphabet invented by the monks Saints Cyril and Methodius.[9]

Baba Vida fortress in Vidin, built in the 10th century

The Cyrillic alphabet became the basis for further cultural development. Centuries later, this alphabet, along with the Old Bulgarian language, fostered the intellectual written language (lingua franca) for Eastern Europe, known as Church Slavonic. The greatest territorial extension of the Bulgarian Empire—covering most of the Balkans—occurred under Emperor Simeon I the Great, the first Bulgarian Tsar (Emperor), who ruled from 893 to 927.[10] The Battle of Anchialos (917), one of the bloodiest battles in the Middle ages.[11] marked one of Bulgaria's most decisive victories against the Byzantines.

However, Simeon's greatest achievement consisted of Bulgaria developing a rich, unique Christian Slavonic culture, which became an example for the other Slavonic peoples in Eastern Europe and also ensured the continued existence of the Bulgarian nation despite forces that threatened to tear it into pieces throughout its long and war-ridden history.

Bulgaria declined in the mid-tenth century, worn out by wars with Croatia, by frequent Serbian rebellions sponsored by Byzantine gold, and by disastrous Magyar and Pecheneg invasions.[12] Because of this, Bulgaria collapsed in the face of an assault of the Rus' in 969–971.[13]

The Bulgarian Empire ca. 893 in dark green, with territorial gains up to 927 in light green

The Byzantines then began campaigns to conquer Bulgaria. In 971, they seized the capital Preslav and captured Emperor Boris II.[14] Resistance continued under Tsar Samuil in the western Bulgarian lands for nearly half a century. The country managed to recover and defeated the Byzantines in several major battles, taking the control of the most of the Balkans and in 991 invaded the Serbian state.[15] But the Byzantines led by Basil II ("the Bulgar-Slayer") destroyed the Bulgarian state in 1018 after their victory at Kleidion.[16]

Notes

Zlatarski, pp. 146–153
Runciman, p. 26
Иван Микулчиќ, "Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македониjа", Скопjе, "Македонска цивилизациjа", 1996, стр. 29–33.
C. de Boor (ed), Theophanis chronographia, vol. 1. Leipzig: Teubner, 1883 (repr. Hildesheim: Olms, 1963), 397, 25–30 (AM 6209)"φασί δε τινές ότι και ανθρώπους τεθνεώτας και την εαυτών κόπρον εις τα κλίβανα βάλλοντες και ζυμούντες ήσθιον. ενέσκηψε δε εις αυτούς και λοιμική νόσος και αναρίθμητα πλήθη εξ αυτών ώλεσεν. συνήψε δε προς αυτούς πόλεμον και τον των Βουλγάρων έθνος, και, ως φασίν οι ακριβώς επιστάμενοι, [ότι] κβ χιλάδας Αράβων κατέσφαξαν."
Runciman, p. 52
s:Chronographia/Chapter 61
Georgius Monachus Continuatus, loc. cit. [work not previously referenced], Logomete
Vita S. démentis
Barford, P. M. (2001). The Early Slavs. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press
Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, pp. 144–148.
Bojidar Dimitrov: Bulgaria Illustrated History. BORIANA Publishing House 2002, ISBN 9545000449
Theophanes Continuatus, pp. 462—3, 480
Cedrenus: II, p. 383
Leo Diaconus, pp. 158–9
Шишић [Šišić], p. 331
Skylitzes, p. 457

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Terms of Service

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Thu, 15 Oct 2009 13:38:50 PDT

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Privacy Policy

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Thu, 15 Oct 2009 13:38:27 PDT

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Bosnia-Herzegovina in NATO

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Sun, 11 Oct 2009 06:29:19 PDT

Bosnia-Herzegovina submited on Friday an official application for a NATO Membership Action Plan (MAP). MAP is designed to assist aspiring partner countries meet NATO standards and prepare for possible future membership. Anders Fogh Rasmussen, NATO Secretary General, welcomed Bosnia-Herzegovina that signed previously an agreement on security cooperation, in March 2007

Kingdom of Croatia

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Sun, 04 Oct 2009 09:21:15 PDT

Baška tablet, oldest evidence of the glagolitic script

The Croats arrived in what is today Croatia in the early 7th century. They organized into two dukedoms; the duchy of Pannonia in the north and the duchy of Littoral Croatia in the south. Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus wrote that Porga, duke of the Dalmatian Croats, who had been invited into Dalmatia by Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, sent to Heraclius for Christian teachers. At the request of Heraclius, Pope John IV (640-642) sent Christian teachers and missionaries to the Croatian Provinces.^[1] These missionaries converted Porga, and also a great many of the clan that was under his immediate authority, to the Christian faith in 640. The Christianization of the Croats was mostly complete by the 9th century. Both duchies became Frankish vassals in late 8th century, and eventually became independent in the following century.

The first native Croatian ruler recognized by the Pope was duke Branimir, whom Pope John VIII called dux Croatorum ("duke of Croats") in 879.^[2] Duke Tomislav of Littoral Croatia was one of the most prominent members of the House of Trpimirović. He united the Croats of Dalmatia and Pannonia into a single Kingdom in 925. Tomislav's state extended from the Adriatic Sea to the Drava river, and from the Raša river to the Drina river. Under his rule, Croatia became one of the most powerful kingdoms in Medieval Europe.^[3] Tomislav defeated the invasions of the Arpads in battle and forced them across the Drava. He also annexed a part of Pannonia. This included the area between the rivers Drava, Sava and Kupa, so his Duchy bordered with Bulgaria for a period of time. This was the first time that the two Croatian Realms were united, and all Croats were in one state. The union was later recognised by Byzantium, which gave the royal crown to Stjepan Držislav^[4] and papal crown to king Zvonimir. The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak during the reign of Kings Petar Krešimir IV (1058–1074) and Zvonimir (1075–1089).

References

^ De Administrando Imperio, Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos,
^ Stjepan Antoljak, Pregled hrvatske povijesti, Split 1993., str. 43.
^ Opća enciklopedija JLZ. Zagreb. 1982.
^ Recipiebant enim regie dignitatis insignia ab imperatoribus Constantinopolitanis et dicebantur eorum eparchi siue patritii

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Prehistory and antiquity of Bulgaria

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Thu, 01 Oct 2009 01:57:53 PDT

The Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari, a 3rd century BC tomb listed as one of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites

Prehistoric cultures in the Bulgarian lands include the Neolithic Hamangia culture and Vinča culture (6th to 3rd millennia BC), the eneolithic Varna culture (5th millennium BC; see also Varna Necropolis), and the Bronze Age Ezero culture. The Karanovo chronology serves as a gauge for the prehistory of the wider Balkans region.

The Thracians, one of the three primary ancestors of modern Bulgarians, left lasting traces throughout the Balkan region despite the tumultuous subsequent millennia. The Thracians lived in separate tribes until King Teres united most of them around 500 BC in the Odrysian kingdom, which later peaked under the respective leaderships of kings Sitalces and Cotys I (383–359 BC). Thereafter the Macedonian Empire incorporated the Odrysian kingdom and Thracians became an inalienable component in the extra-continental expeditions of both Philip II and Alexander III (the Great). In 188 BC the Romans invaded Thrace, and warfare continued until 45 AD when Rome finally conquered the region. Thracian and Roman cultures merged to an extent, although the core traditions of the former remained untouched. Thus by the 4th century the Thracians had a composite indigenous identity, as Christian "Romans" who held on to some of their ancient pagan rituals.

The Slavs emerged from their original homeland in the early 6th century and spread to most of Eastern Central Europe, Eastern Europe and the Balkans, dividing in the process into three main branches: the West Slavs, the East Slavs and the South Slavs. A portion of the eastern South Slavs assimilated the Thracians before the Bulgar elite incorporated them into the First Bulgarian Empire.^[1]

Notes

^ s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bulgaria/History

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Medieval Bosnia

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Wed, 23 Sep 2009 20:47:04 PDT

Bosnia in 10th century
Bosnian state during Ban Kulin 1180–1204
Bosnian state during king Tvrtko 1353–1391
Bosnia in second part of 15th century
Bosnia in second part of 19th century

Modern knowledge of the political situation in the west Balkans during the Early Middle Ages is patchy and confusing. Upon their arrival, the Slavs brought with them a tribal social structure, which probably fell apart and gave way to Feudalism only with Frankish penetration into the region in the late ninth century. It was also around this time that the South Slavs were Christianized. Bosnia and Herzegovina, due to its geographic position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process, which presumably originated from the urban centers along the Dalmatian coast. The principalities of Serbia and Croatia split control of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the ninth and tenth century, but by the High Middle Ages political circumstance led to the area being contested between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the early twelfth century, Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as an independent state under the rule of local bans.^[1]

Tvrtko I of Bosnia ruled in 1353–1366 and again in 1367–1377 as Ban and in 1377–1391 as the first Bosnian King.

The first notable Bosnian monarch, Ban Kulin, presided over nearly three decades of peace and stability during which he strengthened the country's economy through treaties with Dubrovnik and Venice. His rule also marked the start of a controversy with the Bosnian Church, an indigenous Christian sect considered heretical by both the Roman Catholic and Serbian Orthodox churches. In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy and embraced Catholicism in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254.

The Charter of Kulin Ban - treaty with Dubrovnik. Now in Ermitage in Saint Petersburg, Russia

Bosnian history from then until the early fourteenth century was marked by the power struggle between the Šubić and Kotromanić families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when Stjepan II Kotromanić became ban. By the time of his death in 1353, he was successful in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his nephew Tvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. Tvrtko crowned himself on October 26, 1377 as Stefan Tvrtko I the King of Rascia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia, the Seaside.

Historians considered that he was crowned in the Serbian Orthodox Mileševa monastery.^[2] Another possibility, advanced by P. Anđelić and based on archeological evidence, is that he was crowned in Mile near Visoko in the church which was built in time of Stephen II Kotromanić's reign, where he was also buried alongside his uncle Stjepan II.^[3]^[4] Following his death in 1391 however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had already started its conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the Balkans throughout the first half of the fifteenth century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, Bosnia officially fell in 1463. Herzegovina would follow in 1482, with a Hungarian-backed reinstated "Bosnian Kingdom" being the last to succumb in 1527.

References

^ Malcolm, Noel (1994). Bosnia A Short History. New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-5520-8.
^ "Dr. Željko Fajfric: Kotromanići".
^ "declared as national monument". declared as national monument.
^ Anđelić Pavao, Krunidbena i grobna crkva bosanskih vladara u Milima (Arnautovićima) kod Visokog. Glasnik Zemaljskog muzeja XXXIV/1979., Zemaljski muzej Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo, 1980,183-247

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Balkan Mountains

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Wed, 23 Sep 2009 20:05:48 PDT

The Balkan mountain range (Bulgarian and Serbian: Стара планина, Stara planina, "Old Mountain") is a mountain range in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. The Balkan range runs 560 km from the Vrashka Chuka Peak on the border between Bulgaria and eastern Serbia eastward through central Bulgaria to Cape Emine on the Black Sea. The highest peaks of the Stara planina are in central Bulgaria. The highest peak is Botev (2,376 m), located in the Central Balkan National Park (established 1991). The mountain gives the name of the Balkan Peninsula. Stara Planina played an enormous role in the History of Bulgaria and the development of the Bulgarian nation and people.

In earlier times the mountains were known as the Haemus Mons. Scholars consider that Haemus (Greek 'Aimos) is derived from an unattested Thracian word *saimon, meaning 'mountain range'. Other names used to refer to the mountains in different time periods include Aemon, Haemimons, Hem, Emus, the Slavonic Matorni gori, the Turkish Kodzhabalkan and Balkan.^[1]

Stara Planina is remarkable for its flora and fauna. Edelweiss grows there in the region of Kozyata stena. Some of the most striking landscapes are included in the Central Balkan National Park with steep cliffs, the highest waterfalls in the Balkan peninsula and lush vegetation. There are a number of important nature reserves such as Chuprene, Kozyata stena and others. Most of Europe's large mammals inhabit the area including the brown bear, wolf, boar, chamois, deer.

References and notes

^ "SummitPost - Stara Planina (Balkana) -- Climbing, Hiking & Mountaineering". www.summitpost.org.

Links

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Prehistory of Albania

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Thu, 10 Sep 2009 07:16:47 PDT

Butrint, UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The area of today's Albania has been populated since prehistoric times. In antiquity, much of it was settled by the ancient Illyrians, possible ancestors of Albanians.^[1]^[2]^[3]

The rediscovered city of Butrint is probably more significant today than it was when Julius Caesar used it as a provisions depot for his troops during his campaigns in the 1st century BC. At that time, it was considered to be an unimportant outpost, overshadowed by the Greek colonies, Apollonia and Durrës.^[4]

Formal investigation and recording of Albania's archaeological monuments began with Francois Pouqueville, who was Napoleon's consul-general to Ali Pasha's court, and Martin Leake, who was the British agent there. A French mission, led by Len Rey, worked throughout Albania from 1924 to 1938 and published its results in Cahiers d'Archéologie, d'art et d'Histoire en Albanie et dans les Balkans (Notes of Archaeology, Art, and History in Albania and in the Balkans).

Archaeologists today are finding remains from all periods, from the Stone Age to the early Christian era.

Another project that produced prehistoric finds, though unexpectedly, was done in the valley of Kryegjata, close to the present-day city of Fier and in the area of Apollonia. This excavation, a collaboration between the University of Cincinnati and archaeologists from the Institute of Archeology in Albania, was originally a mission to learn about the Greek colony of Apollonia. Instead, they found evidence of a much older settlement.^[5]

In 2000, the Albanian government established Butrint National Park, which draws about 70,000 visitors annually and is Albania's second World Heritage site.

In 2003, a synagogue dating from the 5th or 6th century AD was uncovered in Saranda, a coastal town opposite Corfu. It was the first time remains of an early synagogue have been found in that area. The history of its excavation is also noteworthy. The team found exceptional mosaics depicting items associated with Jewish holidays, including a menorah, ram's horn, and citron tree. Mosaics in the basilica of the synagogue show the facade of what resembles a Torah, animals, trees, and other biblical symbols.

References:

^ "Albania". Encyclopedia Britannica.
^ "A Country Study: Albania". Library of Congress.
^ Constantine A. C., and Charles, D. Albania Past and Present. Columbia University, p. 10. April, 1919.
^ An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis by Mogens Herman, ISBN 0198140991, 2004, page 343, "Bouthroton (Bouthrotios)"
^ Diane Michelle Fox. Under Albanian Soil - A brief history of archaeological activity, both past and present, in Albania. 12 August 2004.[2]

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Slovenia

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Mon, 07 Sep 2009 01:49:58 PDT

Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija)

Flag Coat of arms

Anthem: 7th stanza of Zdravljica
Location of Slovenia

Capital (and largest city) Ljubljana, 46°03′N 14°30′E / 46.05°N 14.5°E / 46.05; 14.5

Official languages Slovene1
Demonym Slovenian, Slovene
Government Parliamentary republic
- President Danilo Türk
- Prime Minister Borut Pahor
Independence from Yugoslavia
- Declared 25 June 1991
- Recognised 1992
EU accession 1 May 2004
Area
- Total 20,273 km2 (153rd)
7,827 sq mi
- Water (%) 0.6
Population
- 2009 estimate 2,053,355 (144th)
- 2002 census 1,964,036
- Density 99.6/km2 (80th)
251/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate
- Total $59.316 billion[1]
- Per capita $29,472[1]
GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate
- Total $54.639 billion[1]
- Per capita $27,149[1]
Gini (2007) 28.4 (low)
HDI (2008) ▲ 0.928 (high) (26th)
Currency Euro (€)3 (EUR)
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
- Summer (DST) CEST (UTC+2)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .si4
Calling code 386
1 Italian and Hungarian are recognised as official languages in the residential municipalities of the Italian or Hungarian national community.
2 Source: Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia: Population, Slovenia, 30 June 2008
3 Prior to 2007: Slovenian tolar
4 Also .eu, shared with other European Union member states.

Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia (Slovene: Republika Slovenija, is a country in Central Europe bordering Italy to the west, the Adriatic Sea to the southwest, Croatia to the south and east, Hungary to the northeast, and Austria to the north. The capital of Slovenia is Ljubljana.

Slovenia has been part of the Roman Empire; partly the Republic of Venice; the principality Carantania (only modern Slovenia's northern part); the Holy Roman Empire; the Habsburg Monarchy; the Austrian Empire (later known as Austria-Hungary); the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs; the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (renamed to Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929); partly Kingdom of Italy; between the two World Wars occupied by Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945); and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia from 1945 until independence in 1991.

Slovenia is a member of the European Union, the Eurozone, the Schengen area, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the Council of Europe, NATO, UNESCO, WTO, and UN.

Prehistory & Early History of Serbia

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Wed, 02 Sep 2009 11:12:31 PDT

Felix Romuliana, Roman site

The ancient Illyrians, Thracians and Dacians inhabited Serbia prior to the Romans. Macedon expanded into the south of modern Serbia in the 4th century B.C., the northernmost point of the empire of Alexander the Great being the town of Kale. The northern Serbian city of Sirmium was one of the Roman capitals during the Tetrarchy.^[1]

References

^ Hrčak - Scrinia Slavonica, Vol.2 No.1 Listopad 2002

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Romania's etymology

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Thu, 27 Aug 2009 21:41:30 PDT

The name of Romania (Romanian: România) comes from Romanian: român which is a derivative of the Latin: Romanus (Roman).^[1] The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus (Romanian: Român/Rumân) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors, including Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia.^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5] The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter known as "Neacşu's Letter from Câmpulung".^[6] This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Ţeara Rumânească (Ţeara from the Latin: Terra land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân.^{[note 1]} Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form român kept an ethno-linguistic meaning.^[7] After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc".^{[note 2]} The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century.^{[note 3]} This name has been officially in use since December 11, 1861.^[8]

English-language sources still used the terms "Rumania" or "Roumania", borrowed from the French spelling "Roumanie", as recently as World War II,^[9] but since then those terms have largely been replaced with the official^[10] spelling "Romania".

Notes

^ "am scris aceste sfente cǎrţi de învăţături, sǎ fie popilor rumânesti... sǎ înţeleagǎ toţi oamenii cine-s rumâni creştini" "Întrebare creştineascǎ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascǎ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...că văzum cum toate limbile au şi înfluresc întru cuvintele slǎvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbă nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncǎ scoasem de limba jidoveascǎ si greceascǎ si srâbeascǎ pre limba româneascǎ 5 cărţi ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cărţi şi le dăruim voo fraţi rumâni şi le-au scris în cheltuială multǎ... şi le-au dăruit voo fraţilor români,... şi le-au scris voo fraţilor români" Palia de la Orǎştie (1581–1582), Bucureşti, 1968.
În Ţara Ardealului nu lăcuiesc numai unguri, ce şi saşi peste seamă de mulţi şi români peste tot locul..., Grigore Ureche, Letopiseţul Ţării Moldovei, p. 133-134.
^ In his well known literary testament Ienăchiţă Văcărescu writes: "Urmaşilor mei Văcăreşti!/Las vouă moştenire:/Creşterea limbei româneşti/Ş-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-Vodă şi a răzmeriţei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Încep după-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavroghenească/Dela Ţara Românească.
^ The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe Lazăr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe Lazăr din morţi a înviat/Aşa tu România din somn ai deşteptat."

References

^ Explanatory Dictionary of the Romanian Language, 1998; New Explanatory Dictionary of the Romanian Language, 2002
^ Andréas Verres. Acta et Epistolae. I. pp. 243. ""nunc se Romanos vocant""
^ Cl. Isopescu (1929). "Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento". Bulletin de la Section Historique XVI: 1–90. ""...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..."".
^ Maria Holban (1983) (in Romanian). Călători străini despre Ţările Române. II. Ed. Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică. pp. 158–161. "“Anzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...”"
^ Paul Cernovodeanu (1960) (in Romanian). Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier l’an 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48. IV. 444. ""Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian l’empereur…Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à-dire romain … ""
^ Iorga, N.. Hurmuzachi, Apud. ed. Neacsu's Letter from Campulung. Documente, XI. pp. 843
^ Brezeanu, Stelian (1999). Romanitatea Orientalǎ în Evul Mediu. Bucharest: Editura All Educational. pp. 229–246.
^ "Wallachia and Moldavia, 1859-61".
^ "Map of Southern Europe, 1942-1945". United States Army Center of Military History via the University of Texas at Austin Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection.
^ http://www.cdep.ro/pls/dic/site.page?den=act2_2&par1=1#t1c0s0a1

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Montenegro's name

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Thu, 20 Aug 2009 20:59:29 PDT

Crna Gora, sometimes transliterated as Tsrna Gora ("Black Mountain"), is mentioned for the first time in 1296 by Serbian King Stefan Uroš II Milutin in his edict to the Serbian Orthodox Zeta Episcopate seat at the Vranjina island in Lake Skadar from 1296^[1]. The origin of the term lies in the Slavic reference to excessively mountainous regions, often emerging in the medieval Serbian realm. Mentioned afterwards in most House of Nemanjić's edicts and in subsequent Venetian sources in the 13th and 14th centuries, signifying the area of the Upper Zeta, the name stabilized itself for a Principality in the second half of the 15th century under Lord Ivan Crnojević, mostly confounding erroneously the term with the dynasty's name, which both have similar roots. The region itself became remembered as Old Montenegro (Стара Црна Гора/Stara Crna Gora) as by the 19th century the The Highlands were added to the state, and Montenegro further increased its size several times by the 20th century during wars against the Ottomans, expanding its name to and annexing Old Herzegovina and parts of Old Serbia, most notably Metohija and southern Rashka. The state changed little to modern day reference, losing Metohija and gaining the Bay of Kotor. The name of the region gave the name to its people, the Montenegrins (Црногорци/Crnogorci).

The country's name in most Western European languages, including English, reflects an adoption of the Italian-Venetian term monte negro, meaning "black mount", which probably dates back to the era of Venetian hegemony over the area in the Middle Ages. Other languages, particularly nearby ones, use their own direct translation of the term "black mountain" (e.g. Albanian: Mali i Zi, Bulgarian: Черна гора, Cherna gora, Czech: Černá Hora, Greek: Μαυροβούνιο / Mayrovoúnio, Polish: Czarnogóra, Romanian: Muntenegru, Slovenian: Črna Gora, Slovak: Čierna hora, Turkish: Karadağ)). Names from further afield include Russian: Черногория, Chernogoriya, Icelandic: Svartfjallaland and Chinese: 黑山 (pinyin: "hēishān".^[2]).

The ISO Alpha-2 code for Montenegro is ME and the Alpha-3 Code is MNE.^[3]

References

^ Geography
^ this literal translation is used in Mainland China and Hong Kong; Taiwanese Mandarin uses 蒙特內哥羅 "méngtènèigēluó", a phonetic transcription of "Montenegro"
^ ISO 3166-1 Newsletter No. V-12, Date: 2006-09-26

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Ancient history of the Republic of Macedonia

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Mon, 17 Aug 2009 02:54:35 PDT

Map of the area in classical antiquity (situation of ca. the 5th century BC).

In antiquity, most of the territory that is now the Republic of Macedonia was included in the kingdom of Paeonia, which was populated by the Paeonians, a people of Thracian origins,^[1] but also parts of ancient Illyria^[2]^[3] and Dardania,^[4] inhabited by various Illyrian peoples,^[5]^[6] and Lyncestis and Pelagonia populated by independent ancient Macedonian tribes. None of these had fixed boundaries; they were sometimes subject to the Kings of Macedon, and sometimes broke away. In 336 BC Philip II of Macedon conquered Upper Macedonia, including its northern part and southern Paeonia, which both now lie within the Republic of Macedonia.^[7] Philip's son Alexander the Great conquered the remainder of the region, reaching as far north as the Danube, and incorporated it in his empire. The Romans included most of the Republic is their Province of Macedonia, but the northernmost parts lay in Moesia; by the time of Diocletian, they had been subdivided, and the Republic was split between Macedonia Salutaris and Moesia prima.^[8]

Notes and references

^ Bauer, Susan Wise: The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome (2007),ISBN 039305974X, page 518: "... Italy); to the north, Thracian tribes known collectively as the Paeonians."
^ Wilkes, John: The Illyrians, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996, ISBN 0631198075, p. 49.
^ Sealey, Raphael, A history of the Greek city states, ca. 700-338 B.C., University of California Press, 1976 ISBN 0520031776, p. 442.
^ Evans, Thammy, Macedonia, Bradt Travel Guides, 2007, ISBN 1841621862, p. 13
^ Borza, Eugene N., In the shadow of Olympus: the emergence of Macedon, Princeton University Press, 1992, ISBN 0691008809, pp. 74-75.
^ Lewis, D.M. et al. (ed.), The Cambridge ancient history: The fourth century B.C., Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0521233488, pp. 723-724.
^ Poulton, Hugh, Who are the Macedonians? C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2000, ISBN 1850655340, p. 14.
^ Encyclopaedia Britannica — Scopje

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Kosovo name

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Fri, 14 Aug 2009 07:27:03 PDT

All places in the world whose names begin with "Kosov".

Kosovo (Serbian: Косово) is the Serbian neuter possessive adjective of kos (кос) "blackbird",^[2]^[3] an ellipsis for Kosovo Polje "field of the blackbirds", the site of the 1389 Battle of Kosovo Field. The name of the field was applied to an Ottoman province created in 1864.

The region currently known as "Kosovo" became an administrative region in 1946, as the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija. In 1974, the compositional "Kosovo and Metohija" was reduced to simple "Kosovo" in the name of the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo, but in 1990 was renamed back to Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija.

The entire region is commonly referred to in English simply as Kosovo and in Albanian as Kosova or Kosovë. In Serbian, a distinction is made between the eastern and western areas; the term Kosovo (Косово) is used for the eastern part, while the western part is called Metohija (Метохија).^[1]

Since Kosovo declared independence, it is now also referred to as "The Republic of Kosovo" in English, though "Kosovo" is still the most common name used.

Notes

^ Constitution of the Republic of Serbia
^ Ibid.
^ "The name Kosovo". Dr John-Peter Maher, Professor Emeritus of Linguistics, Northeastern Illinois University

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Prehistory of Balkans

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Tue, 11 Aug 2009 12:00:30 PDT

Neolithic

Archaeologists have identified several early culture-complexes, including the Cucuteni culture (4500 to 3500 BC), Starcevo culture (6500 to 4000 BC), Vinča culture (5000 to 3000 BC), Linear pottery culture (5500 to 4500 BC), and Ezero culture (3300—2700 BC). The Eneolithic Varna culture (4600-4200 BC radiocarbon dating) produced the world's earliest known gold treasure, communicated with the Mediterranean and had sophisticated beliefs about afterlife. A notable set of artifacts is the Tărtăria tablets, which appear to be inscribed with proto-writing. The Butmir Culture (2600 to 2400 BC), found on the outskirts of present-day Sarajevo, developed unique ceramics, and was likely overrun by the Illyrians in the Bronze Age.

The "Kurgan hypothesis" of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) origins assumes gradual expansion of the "Kurgan culture", around 5000 BC, until it encompassed the entire pontic steppe. Kurgan IV was identified with the Yamna culture of around 3000 BC.

Copper Age

Between the end of the 3rd millennium BC and the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, proto-Greek-speaking tribes arrived in the Greek mainland. At that time Illyrian tribes appear in parts of Northern Albania and all the way aside Adriatic Sea. Around 1500 BC, Thracians appear in the Balkans, in Thrace and adjacent lands (now Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova, northeastern Greece, European Turkey, eastern Serbia and Republic of Macedonia). They spoke the Thracian language, an Indo-European language.

The Phrygians seem to have settled in the southern Balkans at first, centuries later continuing their migration to settle in Asia Minor, now extinct as a separate group and language.

Iron Age

After the period that followed the arrival of the Dorians, known as the Greek Dark Ages or the Geometric Period, the classical Greek culture developed in the southern Balkan peninsula, the Aegean islands and the western Asia Minor Greek colonies starting around the 9–8th century and peaking with the 5th century BC Athens democracy. Hellenistic culture spread throughout the empire created by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC. The Greeks were the first to establish a system of trade routes in the Balkans, and in order to facilitate trade with the natives, between 700 BC and 300 BC they founded several colonies on the Black Sea (Pontus Euxinus) coast, Asia Minor, Dalmatia, Southern Italy (Magna Graecia) etc. By the end of the 4th century BC Greek language and culture were dominant not only in the Balkans but also around the whole Eastern Mediterranean. In the fifth century, the Persians invaded the Balkans, in an attempt to capture Greece, and then proceed to the fertile areas of Europe. However, the fierce Greek resistance drove their multinational army back to Asia. The Balkans were to remain free from the Asian nations for at least another thousand years.

The other peoples of the Balkans organized themselves in large tribal unions, such as the Thracian Odrysian empire, created in the 5th century BC. Other tribal unions existed in Dacia at least as early as the beginning of the 2nd century BC under King Oroles. The Illyrian tribes were situated in the area corresponding to today's Adriatic coast. The name Illyrii was originally used to refer to a people occupying an area centered on Lake Skadar, situated between Albania and Montenegro (Illyrians proper). However, the term was subsequently used by the Greeks and Romans as a generic name to refer to different peoples within a well defined but much greater area.^[1]

Thracian tribes before the Roman period.

References

^ The Illyrians. John Wilkes

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.

Greece

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Tue, 04 Aug 2009 05:55:57 PDT

Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Ellīnikī́ Dīmokratía)

Flag National emblem

Motto: Eleftheria i Thanatos, (Greek: "Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος", "Freedom or Death") (traditional)
Anthem: Ὕμνος εἰς τὴν Ἐλευθερίαν (Ýmnos eis tīn Eleftherían, Hymn to Liberty)1

Location

Capital (and largest city) Athens, 38°00′N 23°43′E / 38°N 23.717°E / 38; 23.717
Official languages Greek
Demonym Greek
Government Parliamentary republic
- President Karolos Papoulias
- Prime Minister Kostas Karamanlis
Modern statehood
- Independence from
the Ottoman Empire
25 March 1821
- Recognized 3 February 1830, in the London Protocol
- Kingdom of Greece May 1832, in the Convention of London
- Current constitution 1975, "Third Republic"
EU accession 1 January 1981
Area
- Total 131,990 km2 (96th)
50,944 sq mi
- Water (%) 0.8669
Population
- 2009 estimate 11,257,285[1] (73th)
- 2001 census 10,964,020[2]
- Density 85.3/km2 (88th)
221.0/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate
- Total $341.127 billion[3] (33th)
- Per capita $30,535[3] (28th)
GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate
- Total $357.549 billion[3] (27th)
- Per capita $32,005[3] (27th)
Gini (2000) 34.32 (low) (35th)
HDI (2006) ▲ 0.947 (high) (18th)
Currency Euro (€)3 (EUR)
Time zone EET (UTC+2)
- Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .gr4
Calling code 30
1 Also the national anthem of Cyprus.
2 UNDP Human Development Report 2007/08.
3 Before 2001, the Greek drachma.
4 The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.

Greece (Greek: Ελλάδα, transliterated: Elláda, historically Ἑλλάς, Hellás), officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Ellīnikī́ Dīmokratía),^[4] is a country in southeastern Europe, situated on the southern end of the Balkan Peninsula. The country has borders with Albania, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea lies to the east and south of mainland Greece, while the Ionian Sea lies to the west. Both parts of the Eastern Mediterranean basin feature a vast number of islands, islets and rock islands.

Modern Greece traces its roots to the civilization of ancient Greece, generally considered to be the cradle of Western civilization. As such, it is the birthplace of democracy,[5] Western philosophy,[6] the Olympic Games, Western literature and historiography, political science, major scientific and mathematical principles, and Western drama,[7] including both tragedy and comedy.

Greece is a developed country, a member of the European Union since 1981,[8] a member of the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union since 2001, NATO since 1952,[9] the OECD since 1961,[10] the WEU since 1995, a founding member of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation and a member of ESA since 2005.[11] Athens is the capital; Thessaloniki, Patras, Heraklion, Larissa, Volos, Ioannina, Kavala, Rhodes and Serres are some of the country's other major cities.

Notes

"Total population". Eurostat. 2009-01-01.
National Statistical Service of Greece: Population census of 18 March 2001: Πίνακας 1. Πληθυσμός κατά φύλο και ηλικία
"Greece". International Monetary Fund.
"World Factbook - Greece: Government". CIA. www.cia.gov. 2007-03-15.
Finley, M. I. Democracy Ancient and Modern. 2d ed., 1985. London: Hogarth.
History of Philosophy, Volume 1 by Frederick Copleston
Brockett, Oscar G. History of the Theatre. sixth ed., 1991. Boston; London: Allyn and Bacon.
"Member States of the EU: Greece". European Union. europa.eu.
On the 14 August 1974 Greek forces withdrew from the integrated military structure of NATO in protest at the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus. Greece rejoined NATO in 1980.
"Convention on the OECD". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. www.oecd.org.
"Greece becomes 16th ESA Member State". European Space Agency. www.esa.int. 2005-03-22. http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMWYQRMD6E_index_0.html. Retrieved on 2007-04-07.

References

Dagtoglou, P.D. (1991). "Protection of Individual Rights" (in Greek). Constitutional Law — Individual Rights — Volume I. Athens-Komotini: Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers.
Mavrias, Kostas G. (2002) (in Greek). Constitutional Law. Athens: Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers. ISBN 9-60150-663-2.
translated by Xenophon Paparrigopoulos, Stavroula Vassilouni (2004) (PDF). The Constitution of Greece. Athens: Hellenic Parliament. ISBN 9-605-60073-0.
Venizelos, Evangelos (2002). "The Contribution of the Revision of 2001" (in Greek). The "Acquis" of the Constitutional Revision. Athens: Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers. ISBN 9-60150-617-9.
Pappas, Takis (April 2003). "The Transformation of the Greek Party System Since 1951". West European Politics 26 (2): 90–114. doi:10.1080/01402380512331341121.

Alafranga and alaturca

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Thu, 23 Jul 2009 10:01:01 PDT

Two native concepts known as alaturca and alafranga, which point to the sense of distinction between the Eastern (rather than Turkish in ethnic terms) and Western culture in the Balkans. This distinction, applicable to various cultural features and aspects of everyday life, encompasses the opposition between "old" (old- fashioned) and "new" (modern), as well.This guide is licensed under the

Early history of Croatia

sfetcu@teleactivities.net (Nicolae) — Tue, 07 Jul 2009 11:24:35 PDT

Oton Iveković, The arrival of the Croats at the shores of Adriatic

The area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period. Fossils of Neanderthals dating to the middle Paleolithic have been unearthed in the area of Krapina and Vindija. More recent (late Mousterian) Neanderthal remains have been discovered in Mujina pećina near the coast.

In the early Neolithic period, the Starčevo, Vučedol and Hvar cultures were scattered around the region. The Iron Age left traces of the Hallstatt culture (early Illyrians) and the La Tène culture (Celts).

Much later the region was settled by Liburnians and Illyrians, and Greek colonies were established on the islands of Vis (by Dionysius I of Syracuse) and Hvar.^[1] In 9 AD the territory of today's Croatia became part of the Roman Empire. Emperor Diocletian built a massive palace in Split where he retired from politics in AD 305.^[2] During the 5th century the last Roman Emperor Julius Nepos^[3] ruled his small empire from Diocletian's Palace before he was killed in AD 480. The early history of Croatia ends with the Avar invasion in the first half of the 7th century and the destruction of almost all Roman towns. Roman survivors retreated to strategically better defended points on the coast, islands and mountains. The modern city of Dubrovnik was founded by those survivors.

References

^ Wilkes, J. J. (1992). The Illyrians. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. p. 114. ISBN 0631198075. "... in the early history of the colony settled in 385 BC on the island Pharos (Hvar) from the Aegean island Paros, famed for its marble. In traditional fashion they accepted the guidance of an oracle, ..."
^ Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Modern Library, New York, p. 335
^ J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, §4, p. 408.

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.